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PHYG 209 > Immunology > Flashcards

Immunology Flashcards

1
Q

Which systems connect the immune system accross the whole body?

A
  • lymph and circulatory system (blood)
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2
Q

From what does the immune system protect us?

A

From pathogens (bacteria, viruses, parasites)
and from altered body cells (cancer)

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3
Q

Which are the 2 systmes of protection (explain)?

A

Non-specific Immunity
- First line defense
- no recognition
- same response each time you see same pathogen

Specific/Adaptative Immunity
- requires pathogène recognition
- Faster response if same pathogen again

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4
Q

What are the ways science can make discoveries about the immune system?

A

Accidents of nature (ex: stroke)

Leaps of faith :
- beleiving in something whose existence can’y be proved
- smallpox vaccination

Serendipity (look at something people would not pay attention to)

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5
Q

Whay are the componenets of the Immune System?

A

Lymphoid Organs:
Primary lymphoid organs (sites where stem cells divide and immune cells develop)

Secondary Lymphoid Organs (sites where most immune response occur)

Immune cells :(Leukocytes/WBC)

Secretion of Immune Cells

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6
Q

Which are the primary lymphoid organs?

A

Bone Marrow: (yolk sac and fetal liver in embryo)
Blood cells are produced here: B-Cells and immature T-cells (B-Cells mature there)

Thymus: (above heart)
T-Cells, scattered dendritic cells, epithelial cells, macrophages
(where T-Cells mature)
*Gets smaller and atrophies as we age

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7
Q

Which are the secondary lymphoid organs?

A

Lymph Nodes:
- Throughout the body
- Filter microbes
- Macrophages in nodes phagocytize microbes entering lymph

Spleen: (la rate)
- Largest L.O.
- Removes microbes + dead/old erythrocytes (RBC)

Lymphoid Nodules:
- Tonsils (amygdales)
- Peyer’s Patches and MALT (Mucosal-AAssociated Lymphoid Tissue) –> against pathogen enter gastrointestinal system by food
- Appendix

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8
Q

Where do immune cells travel?

A

in the Blood and Lymphatic Vessels

*Lymphatic vessels = much + impermeable to protein than capillaries

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9
Q

How do the Lymph nodes work?

A

Liquid will go into sinuses (in the lymph nodes) where encounter immune cells

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10
Q

Which immune cells are derived from the Lymphoid stem cells

A

Lymphocytes :
- T Cells (Cytotoxic CD8+, Helper CD4+, Regulatory CD4+)
- B Cells
- NK Cells

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11
Q

Which immune cells (Leukocytes) are derived from the Myeloid stem cells

A
  • Neutrophils
  • Monocytes
  • Eosinophils
  • Basophils
  • Mast cells
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12
Q

What are Neutrophils functions?
Where are they produced?

A

Phagocytosis
Release chemicals involved in inflammation
(vasodilators, chemotaxis, etc.)

Produced in the Bone marrow

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13
Q

What are Basophils functions?
Where are they produced?

A

Release chemicals (histamine, prostaglandins)
Carry out functions in blood similar to those of mast cells in tissues

Produced in Bone marrow

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14
Q

What are Eosinophils functions?
Where are they produced?

A

Destroy multicellular parasites
Participate in immediate hypersensitivity reactions

Produced in Bone marrow

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15
Q

What are Monocytes functions?
Where are they produced?

A

Enter tissues and transform into macrophages and dendritic cells

Phagocytosis

Extracellular killing via secretion of toxic chemicals

Process and present antigens to helper T cells

Secrete cytokines involved in inflammation, helper T cells, systemic response to infection/injury (acute phase)

Carry out functions in blood similar to macrophages in tissues

Bone marrow

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16
Q

What are Lymphocytes functions?
Where are they produced?

A

Recognition cells in specific immune response (and all aspects of specific response)

B cells and NK cells mature in bone marrow
T cells mature in Thymus
Activated in peripheral lymphoid organs

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17
Q

What are B cells functions?
Where are they produced?

A

antibody-mediated immune responses by binding specific antigens to B cells plasma membrane receptors (immunoglobulins)
After activation, transformed into plasma cells –> secrete antibodies

Present antigen to helper T cells

Develop and mature in bone marrow

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18
Q

What are Cytotoxic T cells (CD8+ cells) functions?
Where are they produced?

A

Bind to antigens on plasma membrane of target cells and directly destroy cells

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19
Q

Which cells are considered target cells?

A
  • virus-infected cells
  • cancer cells
  • tissue transplants
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20
Q

What are helper T cells (CD4+ cells) functions?
Where are they produced?

A

Secrete cytokines that help to activate B cells, cytotoxic T cells, NK cells and macrophages

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21
Q

What are NK cells functions?
Where are they produced?

A

Bind directly and nonspecifically to virus-infected cells and cancer cells and kill them

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22
Q

What are plasma cells functions?
Where are they produced?

A

Secrete antibodies

produced in peripheral lymphoid organs; differentiate from B cells during immune responses

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23
Q

What are macrophages functions?
Where are they produced?

A

Phagocytosis

Extracellular killing via secretion of toxic chemicals

Process and present antigens to helper T cells

Secrete cytokines involved in inflammation, helper T cells, systemic response to infection/injury (acute phase)

produced in Bone marrow
resides in almost all tissues organs
Differentiate form monocytes

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24
Q

What are dendritic cells functions?
Where are they produced?

A

Phagocytosis
Antigen presentation
PROFESSIONAL APCs (link innate and adaptative immunity)

produced in almost all tissues and organs, microglia (macrophages?) in the central nervous system

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25
Q

What are mast cells functions?
Where are they produced?

A

Release histamine and other chemicals involved in inflammation

Produced in Bone marrow
Reside in almost all tissues and organs
Differentiate from bone marrow cells

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26
Q

Which are the different cytokines and what do they do?

A

Interleukine 1, 6 and 2
tumor necrosis factor-alpha
Interferons (type I and II)
Chemokines

Targeted cells:
helper T cells, cytotoxic T cells, NK cells, B cells, macrophages, Leukocytes
Interferons (type I) target most cell types

Functions:
- stimulate IL-2 receptor expression, induce fever
- stimulate proliferation of targeted cells
- promote conversion to plasma cells
- facilitate accumualtion of leukocytes at sites of injury/inflammation

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27
Q

What are the components and characteristics of the non-specific/innate Immunity?

A

No recognition

First Line of Defense:
- physical barriers

Second Line of Defense:
- Cellular factors
- Humoral factors (dissolved in fluids that will fight infections?)

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28
Q

What is the First Line of Defense (of the innate immunity) made of?

A

Physical Barriers
- Skin (water resistant, prevents entry of…)

In skin, gut, lungs, eyes/nose:
- Thight Junctions in Epithelia (mechanical, everywhere)
- Mucus (mouth, gastrointestinal, mechanical) –> sticky so bacteria don’t move
- hair (mechanical)
-cilia –> cough (mechanical, mat of mucus)
- secretions : sebum, Lysozyme, gastric juice (Chemical)
- Normal Flora/microbiome (microbiological on skin and gut)

*Prevents pathogen from entering the body (circulatory system)

29
Q

View p.28, p.37, p.89

A

…

30
Q

What is in the Second Line of Defense of the innate immunity

A

Humoral Factors:
- Inflammation and Fever
- Antimicrobial –> Acute phase reactants: C-Reactive protein (increase blood stream), complement, cytokines
- Interferons (antiviral particules)

Cellular factors:
- NK cells
- Phagocyte cells (mainly neutrophils)
- Cells with inflammatory mediators (basophils, mast cells, eosinophils)

31
Q

What are the 4 signs/symptoms of inflammation?

And 3 stages of inflammation?

A
  • Redness
  • Heat
  • Pain
  • Swelling
  1. Vasodilatation (increase of blood flow)
  2. emigration of Phagocytes
  3. Tissue Repair

**Widening of blood vessels = more blood flow to site
**Increased permeability of capillaries = substance can go to damage site

32
Q

Which are the humoral substances?
What do they do?

A

They discourage Microbial Growth or Spread of Pathogen

  • Interferons (antiviral proteins):
    Type I prevent viral replication
  • Complement:
    Large family of plasma protein, participates in cascades
    Its activation –> recruitment of inlfammatory cells, Opsonization (by phagocytosis) of pathogens, killing of pathogens
  • Iron-Binding Proteins:
    Transferrin
33
Q

What are NK cells?

A

Class of Lymphocytes, similar to cytotoxic T cells but with NO RECOGNITION
(recognize MHC-I which is on every normal cell to not activate the release of enzymes)

Kill virus-infected and cancer cells directly after binding to them by releasing chemicals

perforin makes hole and granzymes get into cell by the hole

34
Q

What are phagocytes’ roles?
And type?

A

*All old RBC phagocytosed in spleen

Types:
Fixed-Tissues Macrophages (come from monocytes moved out of blood stream (same for dendritic cells))
Neutrophils

Steps: Non-specific
*If have C3-b complement system to recognize
- Adherence
- Ingestion
- Digestion (merge with Lysosome –> low pH environment = destruction)
- Killing

35
Q

How do phagocyte recognize microbes?

*In cellular factors of second line of defense (innate immunity)

A

Detects unique structures essential to microbial physiology

Pathogen-Associated Molecular Patterns (PAMPs):
- Lopopolysaccharide (LPS) of gram-neg bacteria
- Peptidoglycan (PGN) of gram-pos bacteria

PAMPs (on bacteria) are recognized by immune system receptors –> Pattern Recognition Receptors (PPR)
ex: Toll-Like Receptors (TLRs) on surface of the macrophage

36
Q

How is the inflammation process started?

A

TLR on macrophage recognize PAMPs on bacteria and send signal to other cells (neutrophils)

TLR on macrophage = extracellular domain for recognition
+ intracellular for signalling

37
Q

How does immigration of phagocytosis work?

A
  1. Chemotaxis
    Chemoattractants attract phagocytes –> stimulates mvt
  2. Margination
    change in surface of capillaries, surfacce receptor change to be sticky to Neutrophils
  3. Diapedesis:
    Phagocytes move across capillary wall
38
Q

WHat is the specific role of neutrophils in inflammation?

A

Neutrophil die in the process of killing bacteria

NETs - (Neutrophils Extracellular Traps) = processed chromatin bound to cytoplasmic proteins coming from lysed neutrophils

Pus is produced (mixture of dead bacteria and neutrophils)

*Don’t want to carry bacteria in blood so carry in lymph nodes

39
Q

How is the link between innate and adaptative imunnity made?

A

Via Antigen presentation by phagocytosis:
phagocyte will carry anitgens from infected area to region where activate specific immune response

40
Q

What is in the adaptative immunity?

A

Mediated by Antibodies or Cells

  1. Humoral-Antibody-Mediated Immunity:
    Antibodies released by B cells
    - Transform into plasma cells (they produce clones/ antibodies)
    - Synthesize and secrete antibodies
    - Memory B cells
  2. Cell-Mediated Immunity
    involves cytotoxic T cells (kill infected, cancer, foreign cells)
41
Q

What is the Major Histocompatibility Complex (MHC)

A

2 molecular classes:
- MHC-I expressed on all nucleated cells (human leukocyte antigens)
- MHC-II expressed on all Antigen-Presenting cells (APC)(B cells, macrophages, dendritic cells)

T cell receptors recognize antigens only when associated with MHC-II proteins (antigen-antibody complex?)

Unique to every persone (except indentical twins)

*RBC don’t have MHC-I bc no nucleus

42
Q

What happens in the specific immunity when APC (Antigen-Presenting cells) recognized? p.71

A
  1. Ingest antigen (phagocytosis/endocytosis)
  2. Diegstion into peptide fragments
  3. synthesis + packaging of MHC-II
  4. Bind peptide fragments to MHC-II (vesicles containing both fuse)
  5. insert antigen MHC-II complexes on plasma membrane (exocytosis)
43
Q

What is an Antigen?

What is the Epitope?

A

ANTibody GENerator

  1. Immunogen: induces a immune response
  2. Allergen : allergic response
  3. Ligand

Can be whole cell or only part

Can be non-microbial (Pollen, incompatible blood cells, tranplanted tissues)

Eptiope: part of the antigen that is recognized by the immune cells

44
Q

What are antigens characteristics?

A

Reactivity: Antibody binds specifically to antigen that proovoked it

Immunogenicity: Provoke an immune response by stimulating antibody production to that antigen

45
Q

What are the 3 stages of the typical adaptative immune response?

A
  1. Encounter and recognition of an antigen by lymphocytes
  2. Lymphocytes activation
  3. Attack launched by Lymphocytes and their secretions

B and T cells involved

46
Q

What are the 3 stages of the typical adaptative immune response?

A
  1. Encounter and recognition of an antigen by lymphocytes
  2. Lymphocytes activation
  3. Attack launched by Lymphocytes and their secretions

B and T cells involved

47
Q

What is the role of T cells in adaptative immune response?

A

Helper t cells = 1st cells, role in full activation of B-cells and cytotoxic T-cells
needs a recognition event/ appropriate receptor on surface

48
Q

How does Checkpoint Inhibition work?

A

For immune response:
displacement of CD28 from B7 by CTLA4 or PD-1?!?!?!?!?!?!

49
Q

Where are secreted antibodies during bacterial infections?

How do we make sur there is no misrecognition?

A

In secondary lymphoid organs:
Lymph nodes or spleen (transported by macrophage)
B-cells –> plasma cells or memory b-cells

No misrecognition bc both T-cells and B-cells have to recognize

50
Q

What is the structure of antibodies?

A

Belong to group of proteins: globulins
They are Immunoglobulins (Ig)

Contain 4 polypeptide chains:
2 heavy (identical) + 2 light (identical)

Variable Region (FAB)
- varies between types on Ig
- Anitgen binding site (top of light chains)

Constant region (Fc)
- same in all antibodies of a class

51
Q

Which are the 5 classes of antibodies?
What is there main difference/ determined by what?

A

They are determined by the Fc region

IgG (most abundant) normal 3 branch
IgA (in fluid like saliva, tears, etc.)2x normal 3 branch
IgM (activate complement system but large so don’t move easily) flocon shape
IgD (allergies) normal 3 branch
IgE (allergies and parasites) normal 3 branch

52
Q

How does Antibody-Mediated Immunity work? p.106

A

Carried out by B cells:
B cells become activated in spleen, lymphoid nodes, lymph node in the presence fo a microbe

53
Q

What is active antibody (adaptative) Immunity ?
(2 types)

A

The person’s own immune response: T cells and B cells activated and produce memory cells

Long-lasting protection bc memory!

Natural - Develops when exposure to antigen by chance

Artificiel - when purposefully exposed to antigen ex: vaccine

54
Q

What is passive antibody (adaptative) Immunity ?
(2 types)

A

When persone receives antibodies –> Temporary protection bc NO memory cells

Natural - IgG from mother to foetus accross palcenta or IgA in Breast milk

Artificial - Receive serum with antibodies form vaccinated person

*Important for infant protection because antibody-synthesizing = poor

55
Q

What are effects of antibodies?

A
  1. Direct enhencement of phagocytosis (Opsonization)
  2. Activation of the Complement system
  3. Antibody-dependent cellular cytotoxicity
  4. Direct neutralization of bacterial toxins and viruses
56
Q

What are the functions of antibodies?

A
  1. Neutralizing Antigens (binding with bacteria to change its structure so change its effect)
  2. Agglutinating Antigens
  3. Precipitating Antigens (facilitate phagocytosis)
  4. Activting Complement (by binding to antibody-antigen complex –> Classical Pathway)
  5. Opsonization (means prepare for eating, enhancement of phagocytosis bc on surface of phagocytes there are receptors for Fc region of antibodies)
57
Q

When does antibody production peak at 1st exposure?
And do these antibodies stay for every and create the adaptative response?

A

After 1 week (second exposure = much faster reponse)

No, antibodies have short lifespan so memory cells are important –> amplification event (due to memory cells)

58
Q

What is th importance of lymphocytes in adaptive immunity?

A

Lymphocytes must gain Immunocompetence (develop antigen receptors)

B cells: produce antibodies

T cells:
Cytotoxic T cells (CD8+) and Helper T cells (CD4+)

59
Q

V/F
The Major Histocompatibility Complex (MHC) is same for everyone?

A

F - its unique to everyone except identical twins

Explains graph rejection

60
Q

How to Lymphocytes gain Immunocompetence?

A

The develop specific antigen receptors for every antigen

*Happens do B and T cells

Recombining DNA to make each antibody specific to a different antigen –> specific to B and T cells

RAG = recombination
activation genes

TdT = Terminal deoxynucleotidyl
rensferase

61
Q

What is an endogenous antigen?

A

Antigen produced by the body itself

Infected body Cells:
Synthesis of MHC-I molecules
Binding of peptide fragments
Packaging of antigen-MHC-I complexes
Insertion of antigen-MHC-I complexes into plasma membrane

62
Q

What is an endogenous antigen?

A

Antigen presenting cells
Synthesis of MHC-II molecules
Binding of peptide fragments to MHC-II molecules.
Packaging of antigen–MHC-II complexes
Insertion of antigen–MHC-II complexes into the plasma membrane.

63
Q

Which factors could alter resistance to infections?

A
  • Protein-calorie malnutrition
  • Stress and state of mind
  • Preexisting disease
  • Modest exercice/physical conditioning
  • Sleep deprivation
64
Q

Name and explain 2 autoimmune diseases

A

SCID = several combined immunodeficiency disease –> diseas that arise from absence of B and T cells and sometimes of NK cells

AIDS = acquired immunodeficiency syndrome –> infects and kills helper T cells so decreased immune response to infectous organisms

65
Q

What can be harmful immune responses?

A
  • Graft rejection
  • Transfusion reactions
  • Allergy (Hypersensivity)
  • Autoimmune diseases
  • Excessive inflamatory responses
66
Q

What explains Graft rejection and what solutions where found?

A

MHC-I on graph cells and MHC-II on the macrophages siffer from the recipient –>recognized as being foreign by T cells

Tools = Radiation or drug
Cyclosporine blocks production of IL-2 and other cytokines by helper T cells (eliminates signal fro proliferation of T cells)

67
Q

What explains blood transfusion reactions?

A

Major factor of rejection = Antibodies bc Erythrocytes lack MHC proteins (bc no nucleus) but have plasma membrane proteins and carbohydrate proteins that function as antigens

ABO system for carbs
Rh erythrocyte-membrane antigens

68
Q

What are 2 types of allergic reactions?

Explain Anaphylaxis

A

Immediate Hypersensitivity
Delayed Hyspersensitivity (12-72 hours after exposure)
reaction usually around site of antigen entry

Anaphylaxis:
large amouts of chemicals (histamine) released by mast cells (or blood basophils) enter circulation –> severe hypotension and bronchiolar constriction –> circulatory and respiratory failure

PHYG 209 (6 decks)

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