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Biology HL > Immunity and kidneys > Flashcards

Immunity and kidneys Flashcards

1
Q

What is a disease?

A
  • prolonged change in organism’s
    homeostasis caused by action of particular factors (mutations, trauma, pathogen action)
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2
Q

What is a pathogen?

A
  • an organism (or virus) that infect another organisms leading to development of a disease
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3
Q

What is the role of skin in primary defence?

A
  • tough layer (physical barrier)
    • sebaceous glands secrete sebum
      • skin moisture + low pH
      • no fungi and bacteria growth
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4
Q

What is the role of mucous membranes in primary defence?

A
  • mucous membranes
    • thinner and softer
    • mucus –> sticky solution of glycoproteins
      • pathogens trapped and expelled
        - antiseptic properties (anti-bacterial enzyme)
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5
Q

What is blood clotting?

A
  • skin is cut —> damage to blood vessels = bleeding
  • clotting
    • blood from liquid to semi-solid gel
    • cuts allow pathogens to enter
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6
Q

What is the danger of forming blood clots?

A
  • if it occurs inside the vessel, could cause blockages
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7
Q

What are the steps of clotting cascade?

A
  1. platelets release clotting factors
    • platelets = cellular fragments in blood
    • first, form temporary plug
  2. clotting factors produce thrombin
    • conversion of fibrinogen (soluble) to fibrin (insoluble)
  3. fibrin mesh forms
    • platelets and blood cells trapped
    • clot is a gel but with air hardens
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8
Q

What is coronary thrombosis?

A
  • formation of blood clots in coronary arteries
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9
Q

What are the consequences of coronary thrombosis?

A
  • heart wall no oxygen and glucose
    • no ATP formed
      • irregular contractions
      • quivering movements = fibrillation
    • may be fatal
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10
Q

What are the causes of coronary thrombosis?

A
  • atherosclerosis, coronary occlusion, damage etc.
    • atheroma (fatty deposits) develop in arteries
      • arterial walls damaged and hardened by calcium salts
    • rupture = lesion
  • smoking
  • high blood cholesterol
  • diabetes
  • obesity
  • no exercise
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11
Q

How is HIV transmitted?

A
  • infected blood: blood transfusions (sharing needles)
  • infected semen / vaginal mucus (unprotected sex)
  • infected mothers milk (low risk)
    • during birth there is a risk —> drugs are given
  • infected saliva (almost 0 risk)
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12
Q

What is HIV?

A
  • human immunodeficiency virus
  • attacks lymphocytes
    • helper T cells
    • number of lymphocytes decreases
    • probability of activation of B cells decreases
      • less antibodies
  • results in AIDS
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13
Q

What is a polyclonal response?

A
  • many non-self antigens in body when infected
    • different lymphocyte clones activated = polyclonal response
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14
Q

What are monoclonal antibodies?

A
  • antibodies produced (in lab) to target only one type of pathogen
  • process
    • antigen purified
    • injected into animal
      • B cells produce antibodies
    • many obtained but only some produce the right antibody
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15
Q

What are scientific purposes of monoclonal antibodies?

A
  • detection of antigen presence in cells, tissues and body fluids
  • recognition of antigen position
  • catching antigen ion solution
  • targeting anti-cancer chemicals
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16
Q

What are other uses of monoclonal antibodies?

A
  • diagnosis
    • HIV detection
    • risk of heart attack detection
    • hCG-based pregnancy tests
  • therapy
    • emergency rabies treatment
    • anti-cancer therapy
    • blood and tissue typing for transplantation
    • purification of commercially used proteins
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17
Q

What is excretion?

A
  • removal of waste products of metabolic reactions
    • to external environment (faeces is not excretion - not part of the body)
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18
Q

What is osmoregulation?

A
  • regulation of amount of water and ions in the organism
    • excretion of excess of osmotically active substances
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19
Q

What are the functions of excretory system?

A
  • maintain volume of extracellular fluid
  • maintain ionic balance in extracellular fluid
  • maintain pH and osmotic concentration
  • excrete toxic metabolic by-products
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20
Q

What are osmoregulators?

A
  • majority of animals
  • active regulation of osmotic balance
  • osmolarity at constant level
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21
Q

What are osmoconformers?

A
  • their osmotic balance changes according to the environment (to avoid drying out)
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22
Q

How do insects regulate osmotic balance?

A
  • Malpighian bodies – excretory and regulatory functions
    • one end in hemolymph (= blood + lymph, no vessels)
    • active excretion of uric acid and ions into the tubule
      • from hemolymph
      • water follows by osmosis
    • ions and water reabsorbed in hindgut, waste excreted
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23
Q

What are characteristics of excretory system?

A
  • two kidneys
    • connected to arterial branches of aorta
  • blood returned to vena cava by renal veins
  • urine transported by ureters to bladder
  • urine released via urethra
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24
Q

What are examples of osmoconformers?

A
  • shark
    • high concentrations of urea in the body
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25
Q

How does an osmoregulator survive in salty environment?

A
  • ions in environment — hypotonic fish
    • 1/3 solute concentration of the seawater
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26
Q

What are different forms of nitrogenous waste?

A
  • ammonia
    • most fish
    • diluted in water (not toxic)
  • urea
    • mammals, some fish, marine mammals
  • uric acid
    • insects, birds, desert animals
    • not water-soluble (doesn’t have to be released)
    • doesn’t harm the egg
27
Q

How do contents of blood in renal artery and vein differ?

A
  • renal artery
    • more toxins
    • subst. ingested and absorbed, not fully metabolised
      • betain pigment (beets), drugs
    • nitrogenous waste = urea
    • not excretory products (not produced by body)
      • excess water (cell respiration, absorbed from food)
      • excess salt (absorbed from food)
      • osmoregulation
  • renal vein
    • constant conc. of salts (osmoregulation occurred)
    • deoxygenated (kidney metabolism)
      • high CO2
    • lower glucose conc. (metabolism)
  • plasma proteins the same, should not be present
28
Q

How is blood filtered in glomerulus?

A
  • pressure in capillaries high + permeable capillary wall
    • fluid forced out —> glomerular filtrate (no proteins)
    • ultrafiltration
29
Q

What are the stages of urine formation?

A
  • ultrafiltration (non discriminating)
    • size based
  • selective reabsorption
    • substances needed are uptaken
  • regulation
    • amounts of reabsorption depends on needs
30
Q

How does the structure of glomerulus facilitate ultrafiltration?

A
  • glomerular filtrate formed
    • blood at high pressure —> filtration easier
  • ultrafiltration = based on size
  • pores in capillary walls = fenestrations
    • blocks blood cells
  • basement membrane
    • covers capillary walls
    • negatively charge glycoproteins —> mesh
      • plasma proteins stopped (size and negative charge)
  • podocytes (specialised epithelial cells)
    • inner wall of Bowman’s capsule
    • small branches = foot processes
    • around capillaries
    • narrow gaps —> small molecules blocked
31
Q

How are sodium and chlorine ions reabsorbed in proximal convoluted tubule?

A
  • sodium ions
    • active transport (pump proteins on outer membrane)
    • outside of tubule
    • to peritubular capillaries
  • chloride ions
    • attracted outside by the gradient formed by Na+
32
Q

How is glucose reabsorbed in proximal convoluted tubule?

A
  • co-transport with Na+
    • Na+ down the concentration gradient
  • the same for amino acids
33
Q

How is water reabsorbed in proximal convoluted tubule?

A
  • osmosis
    • concentration gradient (Na+ outside by active transport)
34
Q

What is the role of loop of Henle?

A
  • maintaining hypertonic (high solute) conditions in medulla
35
Q

How does loop of Henle fulfils its function?

A
  • ascending limb
    • energy to create gradient
    • sodium ions out
      • between cells in medulla – interstitial fluid
    • impermeable to water (stays in filtrate)
  • body fluids (interstitial) – 300 mOsm, pumps can create gradient up to 200mOsm = 500mOsm
  • descending limb
    • permeable to water but not Na+
  • filtrate down the descending limb
    • at the end interstitial fluid has high conc. Na+ —> water drawn out
      • filtrate conc. = interstitial fluid conc. (500mOsm)
  • enters ascending limbs
    • pumps raise the conc. of interstitial fluid (700mOsm)
  • fluid passing descending limb
    • up to 700mOsm
  • interstitial fluid conc. can rise up to 1200mOsm
36
Q

How is the system of loop of Henle called?

A
  • countercurrent multiplier system
    • countercurrent —> fluid flow in different directions
    • multiplier —> steeper gradient in medulla
  • same in vasa recta
    • prevents diluting medulla conc.
    • carries water removed from descending limb (with Na+)
37
Q

On what does the length of loop of Henle depend?

A
  • longer = more water volume reclaimed
    • dry habitats, longer
  • thicker medulla
38
Q

What is the function of ADH?

Antiduretic hormone

A
  • water in distal convoluted tubule is hypotonic (Na+ way in loop of Henle)
  • low solute conc. —> less water absorbed
    • DCT and collecting duct low permeability to water
      • more urine, less concentrated
  • solute conc. increases
  • high solute conc.
    • hypothalamus —> pituitary —> antidiuretic hormone (ADH)
    • ADH increases permeability of walls
    • water reabsorbed
      • high solute conc. in medulla helps
    • less urine, more concentrated
      —> osmoregulation
39
Q

What are the consequences of dehydration?

A
  • insufficient water intake, diarrhoea
    • disruption of metabolic processes
  • dark urine
    • tiredness, lethargy
    • increased tissue exposure to metabolic waste
    • low blood volume — low pressure
    • body temp. regulation
40
Q

What are the consequences of overhydration?

A
  • water retention in organism
    • dilution of body fluids
    • low sodium conc.
  • swelling of cells
    • nerve function disruption, headache
41
Q

What is the treatment for kidney failures?

A
  • result of diabetes or hypertension
  • hemodialysis
    • kidneys cannot filter blood
    • steady amount of blood passes membrane in machine
    • waste products pass, blood cells stay
    • risk of infection
  • kidney transplant
    • living or deceased donor
    • level of freedom
    • recipient can reject kidney
42
Q

What is urinalysis?

A
  • osmoregulation, excretion and metabolism disrupted by illness or drugs
    • urinary tests
  • high glucose + protein —> diabetes
  • high protein —> kidney damage
  • monoclonal antibody —> drug detection
  • microscopic examination —> cells present
  • neutrophils (white BC with nucleus visible) —> infection urinary tract
  • red blood cells —> bleeding, kidney stone or tumour
43
Q

What is the role of phagocytes?

A
  • white blood cells
  • squeeze through capillary walls
    • engulf pathogens (endocytosis)
      • digest with lysosomes
    • infected wounds —> more phagocytes —> formation of pus
44
Q

What is an antigen?

A
  • cells recognise belongings of organism (self or non-self)
  • cells possess distinctive surface molecules
  • molecule that triggers immune response = antigen
  • non-specific immunity
    • all non-self objects attracted the same way
45
Q

What is the role of histamines?

A
  • response to allergens (infection)
  • produced by white blood cells
    • mast cells (connective tissue)
    • basophils (blood)
  • vasodilation (dilation of blood vessels)
    • increased capillary permeability
    • more leukocytes
46
Q

How do histamines cause allergic reaction?

A
  • cells have membrane bound histamine receptors
    • causes redness, swelling and pain
      • rashes and anaphylaxis
  • anti-histamines for allergy taken
47
Q

What is specific immunity?

A
  • production of antibodies to a particular pathogen
    • antibodies bind to antigens
48
Q

How are antibodies formed?

A
  • lymphocytes recognise specific types of pathogen
    • many lymphocytes in small quantities —> variety of antibodies
    • the best reaction employed
  • lymphocytes produce antibodies
49
Q

What is the first stage of specific immune response?

A
  1. pathogens ingested by macrophages
    • antigens on macrophges plasma membrane
  2. helper T cells bind to antigens
  3. helper T cells which have fitting receptors are activated by macrophage
  4. T cells bind to B cells
    • only B cells with matching receptors are activated
      • B cells activated by binding of T cells or by release of signalling protein by T cells
50
Q

What is the role of plasma cells in specific immune response?

A
  • plasma cells = mature B cells
    • produce antibodies
  • a lot of rough endoplasmic reticulum (rER)
    • synthesis and transport of antibodies
    • only some genes expressed —> same proteins
51
Q

What is clonal selection?

A
  • activated B cells divide (mitosis)
    • plasma cells produce the same antibody = clonal selection
  • some clones of B cells —> memory cells
    • inactive unless the same pathogen comes
52
Q

What are blood groups based on?

A
  • different types of antigens on red blood cells
    • ABO and Rhesus (Rh)
53
Q

What happens when transfusion involves wrong type of blood?

A
  • immune response = agglutination
    • hemolysis —> RBC destroyed
54
Q

What is the role of antibodies?

A
  • destruction of pathogens
  • opsonisation - pathogen recognisable and easily engulfed
  • neutralisation of viruses and bacteria
    • preventing from docking to host cells (cannot enter cells)
  • neutralisation of toxins
    • binding to toxins from pathogens
  • activation of complement
    • proteins make hole in membrane of pathogen
    • water and ions go in —> cell lyses
  • agglutination
    • sticking together of pathogen
    • don’t enter cells, easier to ingest
55
Q

What is immunity?

A
  • presence of antibodies or memory cells
  • develops when immune system challenged by antigen
  • secondary response involves more antibodies —> faster
56
Q

How do vaccines work?

A
  • contain attenuated (weakened) version of pathogens
    • primary immune response
  • organism produces antibodies and memory cells
57
Q

Why was Jenner’s vaccine experiment unethical?

A
  • when someone had cowpox, smallpox free
  • infected 8yo with cowpox —> boy recovered
    • infected with smallpox —> no problems
  • no preliminary research on animals
58
Q

How was smallpox eradicated?

A
  • 1950s
  • last case: Somalia, 1977
  • success
    • only humans can transmit it
    • symptoms emerge quickly
    • long-lasting immunity
59
Q

What is a zoonosis?

A
  • pathogen which can cross species barrier
    • tobacco mosaic virus (tobacco, potato, tomato, eggplant, etc.)
    • tobacco crops damage
  • animals living close to human (farming)
60
Q

How are monoclonal antibodies produced?

Once the animal is injected

A
  • antibody obtained by injecting antigen to mouse
    • blood spleen taken —> many antibodies present
  • hybridoma cells = B cells + myeloma cells (cancer)
    • different variations
      • only one has the wanted antibody
    • once desired one found —> clones
      • cultured in fermenter
61
Q

How does a pregnancy test work?

A
  • hCG detected by monoclonal antibodies
  • antibodies to hCG immobilise at each strip
62
Q

What are antibiotics?

A
  • substances that inhibit growth of microorganisms
    • block metabolic pathways in prokaryotes
      • antibacterial
      • viruses lack metabolism so doesn’t work
  • discovered in saprotrophic fungi
    • fungi and bacteria compete for dead organic matter
  • example: penicillin
    • produced by Penincillium fungus
63
Q

How did Florey and Chain test penicillin?

A
  • killed bacteria on agar plates
  • next, 8 mice: 4 treatment, 4 control
  • next, humans (dangerous and unethical)
64
Q

How can antibiotic resistance be avoided?

A
  • antibiotics only for serious bacterial infections
  • completing courses of antibiotics
  • high standards of hygiene in hospital (no cross-infection)
  • no antibiotics in animal feeds for growth
  • new types of antibiotics needed

Biology HL (14 decks)

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