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IMMS phase 1 > IMMS editing > Flashcards

IMMS editing Flashcards

1
Q

Define metabolism.

A

Chemical reactions that occur in a living organism.

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2
Q

Define BMR.

A

The energy needed to stay at live rest. (24kcal/Kg/day)

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3
Q

How much energy do carbohydrates provide?

A

4kcal/g

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4
Q

How much energy do proteins provide?

A

4kcal/g

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5
Q

How much energy do lipids provide?

A

9kcal/g

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6
Q

How much energy does alcohol provide?

A

7kcal/g

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7
Q

How much energy is stored as triglycerides?

A

15kg

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8
Q

How much energy is stored as glycogen? And where is it stored?

A

350g

  • 200g in the liver
  • 150g in muscle
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9
Q

How much energy is stored as protein?

A

6kg

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10
Q

What factors increase BMR?

A

Being overweight, pregnancy, low temperature, exercise, hyperthyroidism

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11
Q

What factors decrease BMR?

A

Increasing age, being female, starvation, hypothyroidism

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12
Q

What are reactive oxygen species?

A

Reactive molecules and free radicals derived from O2

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13
Q

Name 3 exogenous sources of ROS?

A

Smoking, UV radiation, drugs

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14
Q

Name an endogenous source of ROS?

A

Produced as a by product of O2 metabolism

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15
Q

Name 3 ketone bodies

A
  • acetoacetate
  • acetone
  • beta hydroxybutyrate
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16
Q

Where does ketogenesis usually occur?

A

In the liver

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17
Q

When would ketogenesis occur?

A

During high rates of fatty acid oxidation too much acetyl CoA is produced; this overwhelms the Krebs cycle and so you get ketone body formation

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18
Q

What molecules make up ATP?

A

1 adenine, 1 ribose, 3 phosphate

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19
Q

Define buffer.

A

A solution that resists changes in pH when small amounts of acid/base are added.

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20
Q

Name 3 biological buffers.

A
  1. Protein
  2. Haemoglobin
  3. Bicarbonate
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21
Q

What is the equation to demonstrate the mechanism of a bicarbonate buffer?

A

H2O + CO2 -> H2CO3 -> HCO3- + H+

Arrows are reversible

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22
Q

How do protein buffers work?

A

If the pH falls H+ binds to the amino group of the protein.

If the pH rises H+ can be released from the carboxyl group of the protein.

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23
Q

What can cause respiratory acidosis?

A

Inadequate ventilation due to airway obstruction (COPD, asthma).

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24
Q

What happens to the PaCO2 levels in respiratory acidosis?

A

PaCO2 increases leading to an increase in H+ ions and so pH decreases.

CO2 production is greater than CO2 elimination

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25
Q

What can cause respiratory alkalosis?

A

Hyperventilation in response to hypoxia.

CO2 elimination exceeds O2 reabsorption.

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26
Q

List 3 causes of metabolic acidosis?

A

Renal failure, loss of HCO3-, excess H+ production.

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27
Q

List 2 causes of metabolic alkalosis.

A

Vomiting (loss of H+), increased reabsorption of HCO3-.

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28
Q

What do fatty acids produce.

Where is this product used?

A

Acetyl CoA

Used in the Krebs cycle

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29
Q

What is a triglyceride?

A

A glycerol backbone with 3 fatty acids.

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30
Q

What 2 carbohydrates form sucrose?

A

Glucose and fructose

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31
Q

What 2 carbohydrates form maltose?

A

Glucose and Glucose

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32
Q

What 2 carbohydrates form lactose?

A

Glucose and galactose

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33
Q

What is the respiratory burst?

A

WBC’s using ROS in phagocytosis to damage the membrane of invading cells.

34
Q

Name 2 equations that form hydroxyl radicals.

A
  1. Fenton’s
  2. Haber weiss

2. Haber-Weiss

35
Q

What is Fenton’s equation?

A

Fe2+ + H2O2 -> Fe3+ + OH• + OH-

36
Q

What is the Haber Weiss equation?

A

O2- + H2O2 -> O2 + OH• + OH-

37
Q

Define insensible losses.

A

Water loss that we are unaware of. It is comprised only of solvent and can not be measured.

38
Q

What will epiblasts in a 3-week embryo become?

A

Ectoderm.

39
Q

How many days after fertilisation does implantation occur?

A

7-8 days.

40
Q

How long is pregnancy?

A

40 weeks.

41
Q

What does the blastocyst divide into?

A

Embryoblast (inner cell mass) and Trophoblast (outer cell mass).

42
Q

What does the embryoblast divide into?

A

Epiblast and Hypoblast = bi-laminar disc.

43
Q

What does the trophoblast divide into?

A

Cytotrophoblast (inner) and Syncytiotrophoblast (outer).

44
Q

How is the primary utero-placental circulation established?

A

Lacunae form in the syncytiotropohoblast and maternal blood enters.

45
Q

What happens in the third week of embryonic life?

A

Gastrulation - formation of a tri-laminar embryonic disc.

46
Q

What is the function of chorionic villi?

A

Allows the transfer of nutrients from maternal blood to foetal blood.

47
Q

What part of the tri-laminar disc are somites formed from?

A

Paraxial plate mesoderm.

48
Q

What part of the tri-laminar disc is the circulatory system formed from?

A

Lateral plate mesoderm.

49
Q

What does the ectoderm form?

A

CNS, PNS, skin, posterior pituitary and sweat glands.

50
Q

What does the endoderm form?

A

Respiratory tract, GI tract, urinary tract, auditory tube, liver, pancreas, thyroid and parathyroid glands.

51
Q

What happens in the 4th week of embryonic life?

A

The flat tri-laminar disc folds into a cylindrical embryo.

52
Q

What are the 3 layers of the walls of arteries and veins called?

A

Intima, Media, Adventitia

53
Q

What is the normal pH range of the human body?

A

7.35-7.45

54
Q

What is the importance of acylcarnitine?

A

It is required to transport fatty acids into the mitochondria for beta oxidation.

55
Q

What is the product of fatty acid beta oxidation?

A

Acetyl CoA.

56
Q

Where does the acetyl CoA from beta oxidation go?

A

To the krebs cycle.

57
Q

Name 2 allosteric activators of PFK-1.

A
  1. AMP.

2. Fructose-2,6-bisphosphate.

58
Q

Name 3 allosteric inhibitors of PFK-1.

A
  1. Acidosis.
  2. ATP.
  3. Citrate.
59
Q

Lipids have hydrophobic and hydrophillic parts. What is this called?

A

Amphipathic.

60
Q

What layer of the tri-laminar disc does the epiblast form?

A

Ectoderm.

61
Q

What cells does the epiblast give rise to?

A

Amnioblasts that line the amniotic cavity.

62
Q

What cells does the hypoblast give rise to?

A

Cells that line the blastocyst cavity.

63
Q

What is the chorion composed of?

A

The extra-embryonic mesoderm and the 2 layers of trophoblast.

64
Q

What is the role of ATP synthase in oxidative phosphorylation?

A

It transports H+ into the mitochondrial matrix.

65
Q

What is the role of cytochrome-C oxidase complex in oxidative phosphorylation?

A

It transports H+ out of the mitochondrial matrix.

66
Q

What generates the energy needed to phosphorylate ADP -> ATP?

A

The movement of H+ in and out of the mitochondrial matrix.

67
Q

Where does oxidative phosphorylation occur?

A

In the mitochondrial matrix.

68
Q

What transports H+ out of the mitochondrial matrix?

A

Cytochrome-C oxidase complex.

69
Q

Which protein structure is created by covalent bonds?

A

Primary structure (peptide bonds between amino acids are covalent).

70
Q

What type of bond is a peptide bond?

A

A covalent bond.

71
Q

What is the mechanism by which sickle cell RBC’s block capillaries?

A

They activate endothelial cells and cause inflammation, this results in blockage of the capillaries.

72
Q

What are the sub-units of haemoglobin?

A

2 alpha and 2 beta subunits.

73
Q

A mutation in what gene results in HbS production?

A

HBB gene.

74
Q

How do HbS sub-units cause sickling?

A

They bind to the cytoskeleton which causes sickling.

75
Q

What is the affect on HbS in hypoxia?

A

The HbS sub-units polymerise.

76
Q

What is the affect on insensible losses if temperature increases by 1 degree?

A

Insensible losses will increase by 10%.

77
Q

What enzyme, expressed normally in embryonic cells and abnormally in neoplastic cells, lengthens telomeres?

A

Telomerase.

78
Q

Give 2 reasons why cancers are more commonly in the elderly.

A
  1. The elderly are more likely to have accumulated mutations.
  2. Their immune system is weaker and so they’re more vulnerable.
79
Q

What is Knudson’s two hit hypothesis?

A

The idea that a sporadic cancer requires 2 acquired mutations whereas an inherited cancer requires only 1 acquired mutation and 1 inherited. Therefore you are more likely to develop an inherited cancer as the chance of one mutation is greater than the chance of 2.

80
Q

Give 4 functions of tight junctions.

A
  1. Holds cells together.
  2. Generates a concentration gradient across the epithelium.
  3. Allows the passage of water and glucose.
  4. Prevents the passage of large molecules.
81
Q

What enzyme does high insulin levels stimulate?

A

PFK-1 due to increasing fructose-2,6-bisphosphate levels.

82
Q

How does insulin increase the breakdown of glucose to pyruvate?

A

It stimulates PFK-1 indirectly through increasing fructose-2,6-bisphosphate levels and so increases the rate of glycolysis.

IMMS phase 1 (9 decks)

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