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Shmedic Phase 1 > Imms > Flashcards

Imms Flashcards

1
Q

What is the rate limiting enzyme in the Krebs (Citric acid) cycle?

A

Isocitrate dehydrogenase

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2
Q

What does karyotype mean?

A

The number and appearance of chromosomes in a cell.

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3
Q

What are the letters used to denote the arms of a chromosome and what are they separated by?

A 
Long arm (q).
Short arm (p).
They are separated by a centromere.
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4
Q

What form is DNA in when not in replication?

A

Chromatin.

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5
Q

What is the name of densely packed chromatin?

A

Heterochromatin.

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6
Q

How does genetic variation occur as a result of meiosis?

A
  1. Independent assortment in metaphase 1 and 2.

2. Genetic recombination in prophase 1.

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7
Q

How is gametogenesis different in males and females?

A

Males:
Some mitosis in embryo but mainly when reach puberty.
After meiosis 2 there are four equal sized gametes.
Females:
‘Oogonia’ formed in embryo.
Divides into 1 egg and 3 smaller polar bodies.
Meiosis 2 only happens if fertilisation occurs.

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8
Q

What is lyonisation?

A

The process of X chromosome inactivation.

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9
Q

What is non-disjunction?

A

failure of chromosome pairs to separate - resulting in either trisomy or monosomy depending on the phase of meiosis.

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10
Q

What is gonadal (germline) mosaicism?

A

When precursor germline cells are a mixture of two or more genetically different cell lines.

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11
Q

What type of disease is most common in developed countries?

A

Multifactorial (genetic + environmental),

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12
Q

In what type of cell can golgi apparatus be clearly seen?

A

Plasma cells.

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13
Q

What is a pinocytotic vesicle?

A

A vesicle that carries particles dissolved in liquid.

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14
Q

What do peroxisomes do?

A

Contain enzymes that oxidise long-chain fatty acids for the cell to produce 2 carbon fragments for metabolism (beta oxidation). Produce AND breakdown hydrogen peroxide.

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15
Q

True or false: the cytoskeleton can be seen on light microscopy.

A

False.

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16
Q

Are most sugars in living organisms in the D or L optical arrangent?

A

D - and if there is no letter in front of the sugar, assume this is the case.

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17
Q

What are oligosaccarides?

A

3-12 monosaccharides joined by O-glycosidic bonds.

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18
Q

What is a proteoglycan?

A

Long unbranched polysaccharides radiating from a core protein (found in animals).

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19
Q

Are most amino acids in living organisms in the D or L optical arrangement?

A

L - in contrast to sugars.

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20
Q

What is super-secondary structure?

A

A combination of secondary structures, usually a combination of alpha and beta units.

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21
Q

Describe the structure of haemoglobin.

A

Globin ( a protein that is made of four subgroups: 2 alpha, 2 beta) which surrounds four haem groups (a porphyrin ring with an fe2+ ion in the middle).

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22
Q

Which way does DNA polymerase read DNA?

A

Polymerase reads the TEMPLATE strand from 3 to 5, so the new DNA synthesised from 5 to 3.

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23
Q

What is a primer and why is it needed?

A

A short strand of RNA that acts as the start point for DNA synthesis as DNA polymerases can only add nucleotides to an existing strand of nucleotides.

24
Q

What does single strand binding protein (SSB) do?

A

Keep the two strands of DNA apart while synthesis of new DNA occurs.

25
Q

What are Okazaki fragments?

A

Short DNA pieces formed on the lagging which are later joined to make a full strand.

26
Q

What are the start and stop codons?

A

Start: AUG. Stop: UGA, UAG, UAA.

27
Q

How does primary mRNA become mature mRNA?

A

The mRNA is spliced to remove the introns, leaving just the exons.

28
Q

Describe the genetic code (3 features):

A

Degenerate, Universal (almost), non-overlapping.

29
Q

Is an in frame or out frame deletion worse?

A

Out frame - one base deleted as opposed to whole codon, so a frame shift will occur, which can be catastrophic.

30
Q

What is anticipation in genetics?

A

Where a disease caused by repeats, e.g. Huntington’s, has earlier and more severe symptoms in progressive generations.

31
Q

What are the FOUR types of chemical communication?

A
  1. Autocrine - cell releases chemical effects same cell.
  2. Paracrine - adjacent and near cells effected (extracellular fluid).
  3. Endocrine - secretion into blood.
  4. Exocrine - secretion into ducts.
32
Q

Are peptide or steroid hormones faster?

A

Peptide - minutes vs steroid’s hours or days.

33
Q

What are the causes of insensible losses of water in the body?

A

Sweat, breath, vomiting and faeces.

34
Q

What is the measure of number of dissolved particles per kg of fluid?

A

Osmolality.

35
Q

What causes the release of renin (3) and where is it released?

A

A decrease in renal perfusion pressure/ reduced nacl in distal tube detected by macula densa cells/ sypathetic stimulation, causing juxtaglomerular kidney cells to release renin.

36
Q

Where is angiotensin converting enzyme found?

A

Renal endothelium, the lungs and capillary endothelium.

37
Q

What are the 4 types of receptors:

A
  1. Ligand gated ion channels.
  2. G-protein coupled receptors.
  3. Enzyme linked receptors.
  4. Intracellular (nuclear) receptors.
38
Q

Define basal metabolic rate:

A

The amount of energy needed to keep the body alive in the rest state.

39
Q

What percentage of ATP production do lipids account for at rest?

A

70%.

40
Q

How do large (> 12 carbons) fatty acids pass through the mitochondrial membrane?

A

A two stage process know as the carnitine shuttle.

41
Q

Why are fatty acids not used as a fuel source for the central nervous system?

A

Because they cannot pass through the blood brain barrier.

42
Q

What happens when excess acetyl CoA is produced?

A

The liver (hepatocytes) start the process of ketogenesis which produces ketone bodies.

43
Q

Why does diabetic ketoacidosis occur?

A

Due to the lack of sugar regulation in the blood, more fatty acid oxidation will occur and more ketone bodies will be produced, exceeding the capacity of the peripheral tissues. They will then build up in the blood, lowering the pH.

44
Q

What is the main reason that ketoacidosis is bad?

A

It impairs the ability of haemoglobin to bind to oxygen.

45
Q

Why do patients with diabetic ketoacidosis have sweet (pear-drop) smelling breath?

A

Acetoacetate can be converted to acetone which is volatile and can be expired via the lungs.

46
Q

Describe the Fenton reaction:

A

Reaction of hydrogen peroxide with an iron ion to form a hydroxyl radical.
H2O2 + Fe2+ -> OH- + OH*

47
Q

Describe the Haber-Weiss reaction:

A

O2- + H2O2 + H+ -> O2 + H2O + OH

48
Q

What is the most potent ROS.

A

The hydroxyl radical (OH*).

49
Q

What is the rate limiting enzyme of glycolysis and what is it inhibited by?

A

Phospofructokinase-1 - inhibited by ATP and citrate.

50
Q

What is the rate limiting enzyme of the krebs cycle?

A

Isocitrate dehydrogenase.

51
Q

What protects white blood cells from their own respiratory burst?

A

Catalase - converts hydrogen peroxide into water and oxygen.

52
Q

What is a strong acid?

A

An acid the ionises completely in solution.

53
Q

What is the normal pH range of the body?

A

7.35-7.45.

54
Q

What is the most important buffer system in the body?

A

Carbonic acid and bicarbonate.

55
Q

Apart from bicarbonate, what are two other buffer systems are there?

A

Protein buffers and haemoglobin.

56
Q

What is the Henderson-Hasselbach equation?

A

pH = pKa + log([HCO3-]/{CO2]).

Shmedic Phase 1 (8 decks)

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