Ideas About Cause Of Disease Flashcards
1
Q
Which years were the Romans times?
A
0-500AD
2
Q
Which years were the Middle Ages?
A
1250-1500
3
Q
Which years were the Renaissance?
A
1500-1700
4
Q
Which years were the Industrial Age?
A
1700-1900
5
Q
During the Roman period, what four things did people believe caused disease?
A
God (Asceplius and Apollo), theory of miasmas, theory of the four humours, logical ideas
6
Q
Explain the theory of miasmas
A
Bad air causes disease. This includes bad smells from privies and faeces lying in the street as well as the vapour and corrupted air which gets vented during earthquakes
7
Q
Explain the theory of four humours
A
Proposed by Galen and Hipócrates. The body is made up of yellow bile, black bile, blood and phlegm. An imbalance of these causes disease
8
Q
Which 3 beliefs about cause of disease were carried into the Middle Ages and why?
A
Believed the theory of four humours because Galens ideas were promoted by the church, theory of miasmas, still believed God caused disease because they were very religious
9
Q
How did beliefs about cause of disease develop in the Middle Ages? 2 ways
A
They developed a belief that astrology had an impact on disease; they were adamant that the close position of the three great planets (Saturn, Jupiter, Mars) was a sign of wonderful, terrible or violent things to come (one of these things was disease) The society was very superstitious and also believed certain zodiacs were associated with certain diseases
10
Q
What did Romans and people in the Middle Ages believe about God causing disease?
A
They were very religious societies. They thought God inflicted plagues in order to terrify or torment people and so drive out their sins. They also believed he inflicted suffering as vengeance of sins such as dishonouring and despising your father or mother
11
Q
Define enlightenment
A
Movement stressing the importance of reason and critical re-evaluation of existing ideas and social institutions (church, science, government)
12
Q
Define renaissance
A
Re birth/renewal. The period of this revival which marked the transition from medieval to modern times
13
Q
Define reformation
A
The action or process of reforming an institution or practice
14
Q
8 words we could associate with the Renaissance period
A
Art, paintings, sculptures, architecture, scientific discoveries, rebirth, age of individuals, inventions
15
Q
Name 8 key changes in the context of medicine during the Renaissance
A
Governments such as that of Henry VIII were strong and rich, artists such as Michelangelo and De Vinci revolutionised painting, revival of learning, invention of printing press, discovery of America by Columbus, invention of new weapons especially gunpowder, the Reformation, technological developments in mechanisms such as pumps and clocks
16
Q
Why did strong and rich governments lead to changes in medicine? 7 impacts
A
The economy boomed and trade prospered, people could afford doctors. Therefore more investment went into discoveries, countries could receive foreign medicines through trade, spread of disease would decrease if more people could afford treatment, more medicines and treatments could be tested on patients now they could afford it
17
Q
Why did the development of painting lead to changes in medicine? 3 impacts
A
This led to scientists studying the body in more detail and was connected to improved knowledge of the anatomy as doctors could now hire artists to create realistic images of the body to learn from. This may have helped doctors and scientists decipher whether certain medicines would be taken in or rejected from the body as they were more aware of the way it functioned
18
Q
What was the scientific method?
A
Conducting an experiment, collecting observations, then coming to a conclusion
19
Q
When was the Royal society set up and what 3 things did they do?
A
1662, a group of scientists met regularly to discuss new ideas in physics,botany, astronomy and other sciences and demonstrated experiments. They wrote books and articles to spread ideas about new ideas and discoveries
20
Q
Why did the revival of learning lead to changes in medicine ?
A
The population was better educated therefore could propose more logical ideas about the cause of disease and understand the body and the way it functions better
21
Q
What 3 things did the revival of revival involve?
A
Universities set up schools of medicine, beginning of the scientific method, Royal society established 1662
22
Q
Give 5 impacts of the Royal Society
A
Science began to replace superstition in medicine, it was important for well educated people to be knowledgeable in both science and art, people were not afraid to challenge old ideas, new ideas founded, more knowledge of anatomy and how the body functions
23
Q
When was the printing press invented and by who?
A
1450s by Gutenburg
24
Q
Give 5 impacts of the printing press
A
Enabled fast flow of information, encouraged spread of new ideas, people had motivation to read which meant a more educated population, books printed in languages other than Latin, first book to be printed in several volumes and copies was the bible, people questioned why mass was still being delivered in Latin
25
Why did the discovery of America lead to changes in medicine?
New foods and medicines were brought back from the ‘New World’. Different medicines would target different diseases
26
Why did the invention of new weapons lead to changes in medicine?
Soldiers got different types of wounds which battlefield doctors had to deal with. This means doctors would know how to tackle a greater range of illnesses
27
What did the reformation involve?
The dominance of the Catholic Church was challenged and their control over people’s attitudes and beliefs started to change, in particular in enabling dissection of the body to start
28
Why did the reformation lead to changes in medicine?
Science began to replace superstition when considering causes of disease (the population was thinking more logically). By performing human dissections, knowledge on the anatomy could improve
29
Why did technological developments cause changes in medicine?
Antonie Van Leeuwenhoek developed lenses for a microscope in the 1640s which meant bacteria and germs could be looked at more closely. Leeuwenhoek discovered bacteria which he described as ‘animalcules’ in a letter to the royal society in 1673
30
How much did medicine change between 1350-1750?
There were significant changes in people’s knowledge and understanding of the human body during the Renaissance period but very little improvement in the understanding and treatment of illness. When there was a plague epidemic in 1665, the treatments used were similar to those in 1348 and ordinary medical treatment continued to be based on the four humours
31
During the Renaissance period what did people believe would cure them of tuberculosis?
A kings touch. Charles II (1630-1685) touched over 8000 sufferers of the disease in one year
32
Name 9 factors which prevented the development of medicine in the Renaissance
The church controlled education and medical training, the church discouraged dissection, herbal remedies were passed down from one generation to the next, many people were reluctant to change the way they did things, the works of Galen were used as basis for all medical training, some people felt better after they were purged or bled, few people could afford to go to a trained physician, many people believed there lives were affected by supernatural events, most minor illnesses were treated by the women in the family
33
Who was Andreas Vesalius?
He came from a family of physicians, studied medicine in Paris where he met Renaissance artists who were dissecting human bodies to study anatomy and make their paintings more realistic, and became a professor at Padua university at 23 years of age
34
What did Vesalius do?
Performed dissections and produced anatomical charts of blood and nervous systems. In 1539 a Paduan judge made criminals bodies available to him to study and dissect
35
What did people believe before Vesalius?
Doctors before Vesalius believed the books of Galen were completely correct and had all the medical knowledge they needed so there was no need to learn more by dissecting human bodies
36
Give 4 examples of Vesalius’ corrections of Galen
Galen said the heart was divided by a septum which had holes in it to allow blood to pass through but Vesalius showed the septum did not have holes in it. Galen said the liver had five parts or lobes but Vesalius showed the liver did not have any lobes. Galen said the lower jaw was made up of two bones but Vesalius showed that, although this was true in monkeys and pigs, in humans it was only a single bone. Galen said the sternum had seven parts but Vesalius showed it only has three.
37
Why were Galens ideas wrong?
He was forced to perform dissections on pigs and apes due to religious reasons but the anatomy of an animal is different to that of a human which would cause him to come to the wrong conclusion
38
What 4 key ideas are in Vesalius’ book ‘On the fabric of the human body’?
Anatomy professors must base their work on their own human dissection, scientific observation and evidence should be used rather than books by Galen, anatomy was vital to further knowledge, Galen and Ibn Sienna were wrong.
39
Why was Vesalius’ book important? 4 reasons
This was the first modern anatomical text book, had 23 full page anatomical pictures, very successful across Europe due to the printing press and high quality illustrations. Vesalius was the first medical expert to realise the importance of collaboration between artists and scientists
40
What did Vesalius’ ideas encourage? 3 things
Encouraged others like William Harvey to investigate how blood moves round the body, Fabricus used Vesalius’ work and studied the heart in detail, other specialists followed to concentrate on certain parts of the human body
41
What were limitations of Vesalius’ ideas? 5
Publications were limited after 1542 so instead he became personal doctor to Emperor Charles V, Vesalius died relatively early in a shipwreck in 1564, his work had been very general on anatomy which limited its impact, doctors said drawings had no place in science, nobody was healthier as a result of his work
42
5 facts about William Harvey’s education and employment
Studied at Cambridge and then Padua university from the anatomist Fabricus. He worked as a doctor in London, became a fellow of the Royal College of Physicians in 1607, placed in charge of St Bartholomew’s hospital in 1609, was doctor to King James I in 1618
43
What did people believe about circulation of the blood before Harvey?
People believed Galens ideas that new blood was constantly being created in the liver to replace blood that was burnt up in the body. Galen said the body burnt up blood like wood is burnt by fire. This idea had been challenged before Harvey but nobody proved exactly how blood moved around the body
44
What did William Harvey prove? 4 things
Blood flows around the body, is carried away from the heart by arteries and returns in the veins. The heart acts as a pump to to circulate the blood and there is a fixed amount of blood that does not burn up so no organs make blood. Veins only carry blood, not a mixture of air and blood like Galen proposed. The two ventricles of the heart are divided by the septum, Galen said blood flowed from one ventricle to the other through invisible pores but Harvey proved there were no pores
45
What did Harvey do to disprove Galens ideas on circulation?
Carried out many live experiments including: dissection of live cold blooded animals whose hearts beat slowly like newts which meant he could see the movements of each heart muscle, dissecting human bodies to build up knowledge of the heart, put thin rods down veins to show that blood flowed in a one way system in the body, measured blood flow and the amount of blood carried by each heart beat and was able to show there was a fixed amount of blood in the body, gave clear detailed proof and explanations when he disagreed with Harvey or contemporary doctors
46
When and why did Harvey write ‘An Anatomical Account Of The Heart’?
1628 so scientists could see if his experiments worked
47
Why was understanding how blood traveled important?
Future doctors could develop blood transfusions
48
Why did technology mean Harvey’s ideas had a limited impact?
Microscopes had not yet been invented so he could not see tiny blood vessels called capillaries
49
Why did physicians think Harvey’s work was irrelevant to existing problems of disease?
It was based upon physiology (how the body’s organs function) rather than the cause or treatment of disease, his ideas were accurate but did not improve the health of patients because very little could be done until knowledge of blood groups developed in the early 20th century
50
How did people reject and oppose Harvey’s ideas?
Took over 50 years for his work to be accepted, books were written against him
51
Why were people reluctant to change their views on circulation?
Doctors training was still based on galens ideas, the four humours, miasma and supernatural causes. Physicians did not carry our dissections
52
Who was Thomas Sydenham?
Dorset born physician, alive during the Renaissance, who was recognised as a founder of clinical medicine and epidemiology
53
What did Sydenham stress the importance of?
Bedside practice and detailed observation of patients. He favoured practical experience over book learning
54
How was Sydenham kept accurate?
He maintained accurate records
55
What 3 ideas did sydenham develop?
Species of disease (describing and classifying different illnesses), careful observation of diseases at the bedside, doctors should visit patients instead of the other way round
56
What was Sydenhams book called and how was it significant?
“Observations Medicae”which became a standard textbook for 2 centuries
57
What 3 diseases and 3 treatments did Sydenham discover?
Among the first to describe scarlet fever by differentiating it from measles and naming it, to explain the nature of hysteria and St Vitus dance (Sydenhams chorea), introduced laudanum (alcohol of opium) into medical practice, one of the first to use iron in treating anemia, helped popularise quinine in treating malaria
58
Identify 3 limitations of Sydenhams work
His medical studies at Oxford university were interrupted by his participation of the parliamentary side during the first of the English Civil War, rejected pathological anatomy and microscopic analysis on religious grounds because God only gave man the ability to perceive the nature of things with its senses, accepted the traditional concept that diseases resulted from miasmas or the four humours
59
Identify 6 things which show the Renaissance was medically significant
Thomas Sydenham (observed and diagnosed, gave sensible treatments, described diseases such as scarlet fever), William Harvey (ideas about circulation of blood, proved Galen wrong), Andreas Vesalius (ideas about anatomy, proved Galen wrong), printing press, royal society, growing secularism
60
Define secularism
Being free from religious interference
61
Identify 3 things which suggest the Renaissance was medically insignificant
Physicians trained using Galen and did not question his work, hospitals and healers were the same as medieval time (apothecary, barber surgeons, mothers sisters and wives treated disease in the household), treatments still based on four humours and new discoveries didn’t provide alternatives
62
Was the Renaissance medically significant?
Yes because, despite little change in treatment, the development of ideas about the anatomy and circulation were vital to important later developments in medicine. It was important to know how the body worked before putting substances (medicines) inside of it to treat diseases - would need to know whether the substance would be rejected
63
Who was Louis Pasteur?
University scientist, not a doctor, alive between 1822-1895, who loved to demonstrate experiments in public to show he was right and someone else was wrong
64
What did Pasteur’s experiments suggest and what did he conclude from this?
Beer wine and milk were going sour due to microbes in the air so this was also the cause of disease
65
When did Pasteur publish his germ theory?
1861 and three years later he carried out experiments to show scientists his theory was correct
66
What was a major setback of Pasteur’s discovery?
Which microbes caused which disease
67
What 2 things caused Pasteur to investigate human diseases?
The death of his young daughter in 1865 and an outbreak of cholera
68
How did Pasteur investigate cholera?
He took samples of air from a cholera ward but under his microscope could only see a confused mass of bacteria, he couldn’t tell which one was cAusing cholera
69
Who was Robert Koch?
A doctor, alive 1843-1910, who began to study bacteria after becoming interested in Pasteur’s work and was just as brilliant as Pasteur at detailed laboratory work with a team of assistants
70
What did Robert Koch set out to do?
Find the specific microbes causing an individual disease, he was successful when investigating anthrax (a disease common in animals which could also infect humans) This was the first time anyone had identified the specific microbe which causes a disease
71
How did Koch investigate tuberculosis and when?
In 1882 he found a way to stain the microbe so it stood out under a microscope from other microbes. Breakthrough- now other scientists could use this method
72
Which 5 other diseases’ microbes were identified using this method?
1882 typhoid, 1883 cholera, 1886 pneumonia, 1887 meningitis, 1894 plague
73
Give one limitation of Kochs work
Identifying microbes didn’t save people’s lives by itself, more vaccines were needed to give people weak doses of diseases to build up their immunity
74
Identify 7 developments which were a consequence of germ theory
Cleaner hospitals, identification of microbes, improved public health, more investment in science, training of doctors and nurses changed to be based upon Pasteur’s work, higher life expectancy, antiseptic surgery
75
Identify 3 developments which were a consequence of the identification of microbes
Antibiotic medicines, magic bullets, vaccines
76
Why did hospitals become cleaner after Germ theory was published?
Until the late 1800s people preferred to stay at home if they were ill even if they needed an operation. Hospitals were dirty so Florence nightingale began the movement to clean up hospitals before Germ theory was published, the campaign won a lot of support after germ theory publication as people now believed there was a clear link between dirt and disease
77
How did public health improve after germ theory?
In the early 19th century there was controversy over whether governments should force local councils to improve public health facilities by providing clean water and sewage systems. Part of the reason for controversy was uncertainty about what caused disease. Pasteur’s germ theory linked microbes to disease bred by dirt and living in water supplies. This gave campaigners a scientific argument to demand change. The public health act of 1875 forced councils to improve public health.
78
How was antiseptic surgery developed after germ theory?
Many surgeons had carried out experiments in dirty coats on old tables using instruments which had been used and not cleaned but nobody linked these conditions to the high death rate after surgery. After germ theory was known, scientists led by Joseph Lister realised they needed to get rid of microbes from theatres. This led to many more patients surviving operations, they no longer caught infections
79
How did training of doctors and nurses change after germ theory?
People now understood cause of disease so training needed to change to include Pasteur’s work and to examine its effects on all aspects of medical care
80
How did life expectancy increase after germ theory was published?
In the hundred years after germ theory, average life expectancy increased from 45 to 70. The first, significant, long term increase in life expectancy in history
81
What did antibiotic medicines do?
They are cures which use one kind of microbe (living organism) to kill other microbes causing disease. The first antibiotic medicine was penicillin, first widely used in the 1940s. Tetracycline for example is used to treat anthrax, the plague, malaria. However the body is becoming immune to some antibiotics so scientists must create more
82
How did magic bullets work?
Chemical drugs which destroyed bacteria in the body without harming human tissue. Once bacteria had been identified scientists began looking for chemicals that would destroy them. The first effective magic bullets were discovered in 1930s to cure blood poisoning
83
How did vaccines work?
Once scientists identified microbes causing disease they could creAte vaccines using weakened microbes. These prevented people catching the disease. A vaccine for polio was created in the 1950s
84
How did Pasteur experiment with beer?
He realised that when it was stored in a swan necked flask which had been heated, it did not go off because he prevented germs from getting in however if you removed the neck or tilted the flask which had been heated sideways then let it sit, bacteria would be present and the beer would go off
85
Define DNA
Deoxyribonucleic acid. Set of codes controlling the genes that decide eye colour and hair colour and height. This helps us understand which genes were responsible for inherited genes and conditions
86
Define genetics
The science of heredity, dealing with resemblances and differences of related organisms
87
Define crystallography
The science of determining the arrangement of atoms in solids
88
What were two improvements in technology during the 20th century which assisted the development of DNA?
Electron microscopes, x rays
89
What did the crystallography technique involve?
Taking photos of human cells through electron microscopes and x rays
90
What 2 things did scientists work out using crystallography?
How genetic codes fitted together in a DNA strand, which means they could work out which genes were responsible for inherited conditions
91
What inherited conditions did DNA’s discovery allow scientists to identify?
Sickle cell anaemia, cystic fibrosis, Down’s syndrome
92
Which 2 people worked together to investigate the structure of dna?
Francis Crick, a physicist, and James Watson, a chemist
93
How were Crick and Watson assisted and who by?
X-ray crystallography by Maurice Wilkins and Rosalind Franklin at Kings Hospital in London. One of Franklin’s photographs suggested genes were arranged in a double helix structure
94
When did the study of genetics begin?
19th century when Mendel showed characteristics can be passed down from one generation to the next
95
When did Crick and Watson discover the structure of DNA?
1953
96
When was the Human Genome project and what did it involve?
1990. Led by Watson, set out to map the location of every single one of the 30,000-35,000 genes in the 23 chromosomes in every cell of the human body. The project involved hundreds of scientists working in 18 teams. The first draft was produced in 2000.
97
Identify 8 outcomes of the discovery of DNA
New techniques for skin grafts, better production of insulin for diabetics, better vaccines, better understanding of conditions such as Down’s syndrome and leukaemia, better understanding of whether people are more likely to develop certain forms of cancer, discovery that stem cells (found in bone marrow of long bones and the pelvis) can transform into various types of cells around the body which offers a chance of replacing faulty cells with healthy ones, research to develop techniques to alter faulty genes within the body and techniques to prevent genetic illnesses developing
98
Why is DNA tested to establish the relationship between people and to identify criminals?
The order of genes within DNA strand is unique for every single human except identical twins
99
What does research into genetic conditions require?
Very specialised knowledge and expensive, high tech equipment
100
What research is currently being done on the brain?
Add genes to bone marrow and nerve cells to boost enzyme production - the brain can produce enzymes that help fight disease
101
What research is currently being done on the breast?
Repair faulty genes identified as responsible for causing
102
What research is currently being done on the lungs?
Modify cells to protect against breathing problems
103
What research is currently being done on the heart?
Modify cells in bone marrow to send out stem cells more quickly to repair tissue damaged in heart attacks
104
What research is being done on the upper small intestine?
Use stem cells in the gut to create cells that can manufacture insulin, helping the body to combat diabetes
105
Which 4 illnesses were discovered to have genetic causes after the discovery of dna?
Down’s syndrome, cystic fibrosis, Parkinson’s disease, Alzheimer’s disease
106
What did gene therapy involve?
Taking normal genes from a donor and putting them into the DNA of someone suffering from one illness, could use stem cells from embryos for this
107
What were customised drugs?
Drugs could be designed to deal with a particular gene in a particular person
108
What is genetic screening or testing?
Checking for possible diseases or illnesses. This is already done to unborn babies to check for possible conditions such as Down’s syndrome
109
Identify 9 turning points in medicine in the 20th century (rank in order of importance)
1.DNA, 2.antibiotics, 3.magic bullets, 4.blood transfusions, 5.radio therapy, 6.x rays, 7.hypodermic needles, 8.incubators, 9.thalidomide
110
Why is DNA the most important turning point in medicine of the 20th century?
The discovery of DNA led to knowledge and treatment of genetic conditions. For example there is now research into the genes which cause diabetes and heart damage. It is hoped these diseases can soon be cured
111
Why was thalidomide the least important turning point in medicine in the 20th century?
It was a drug developed in the 1960s for morning sickness in pregnant women however it affected the growth of the baby and many were born with deformed arms and legs
112
When were x rays discovered and what were they used for?
19th century, more commonly used in WW1. Used to identify conditions but cannot prevent illnesses
113
What do blood transfusions involve?
Adding sodium citrate to blood helped prevent blood clotting and therefore allowed for blood to be transported and stored
114
What did radio therapy involve and when did it start?
In 1902 doctors realised they could use x rays to shrink tumours, this became known as radio therapy. It revolutionised the treatment of tumours but could not prevent them occurring or cure every case
115
What do incubators do?
Developed to keep premature babies alive and significantly improved the life chances of them
116
What are hypodermic needles?
More precise than previous needles and help give more accurate doses of medicine
117
Identify 3 causes of lung cancer
Around 85% of cases caused by smoking cigarettes, radon gas and other chemicals in the air, small number of people develop it for no apparent reason. 2nd most common cancer in UK
118
Who does lung cancer affect mainly?
People over 40, highest among people 70-74
119
What did records kept at the University of Dresden in Germany show in the 19th century?
Only 1% of all cancers found at autopsy were caused by lung tumours, however by 1918 this had increased to 10% and by 1927 to over 14%
120
When did the British Medical Research Council produce a study about lung cancer and what did it show?
1950. Rise in lung cancer was linked to cigarette smoking. Aggressive advertising by tobacco companies during WW1 had led to a huge rise in the number of smokers
121
What happened to the number of deaths from lung cancer after the study?
Deaths among men continued to rise, they beaked in 1973 with nearly 26,000 deaths. Death rate among women rose until 1990s
