I/O

Question 1

Job Analysis

Answer 1

Purpose: to describe what is required for job

Job analysis can provide info that is job-oriented, worker-oriented, or a combo
- Job-oriented techniques focus on task requirements of job (e.g., lifting, repairing, installing)
- Worker-oriented techniques identify knowledge, skills, abilities, and personal characteristics that are required for successful job performance (e.g., high school education, manual dexterity, 20/20 vision, adaptability)

Methods: interviews, questionnaires (e.g., the Position Analysis Questionnaire), direct observation, work diaries
** most popular = Position Analysis Questionnaire (PAQ)

Question 2

Performance Evaluation

Answer 2

How much money position worth (eVALU(E)ation)
- Done to see if a person should get a raises or bonuses, promotion, dismissals, provide employees with feedback about their performance

Measures of job performance (criterion measures) can be:
- Objective (data that can be easily quantified, such as dollar amount of sales and number of units produced) measures
- Subjective (ratings by supervisors, peers, or employees themselves) measures affected by rater biases (including halo effect, central tendency bias, leniency bias, strictness bias, and contrast effect)

Subjective rating methods include Personnel Comparison Systems, Critical Incidents, Behaviorally Anchored Rating Scales, Behavioral-Observation Scales, and Forced-Choice Checklists.

Question 3

Objective Measures

Answer 3

Direct, quantitative measures of performance

E.g., a car salesman’s effectiveness can be measured by the number of cars sold, and a lawyer’s job performance can be assessed by determining the percentage of cases won.

Other objective measures include salary, number of work days missed, and number of absences

Disadvantages of objective measures –> do not measure many important facets of job performance, such as an employee’s motivation or ability to cooperate with or supervise others
Also, objective data are limited by situational factors (e.g., equipment difficulties, number of coworkers, the economy), and they may not be useful for evaluating performance in complex jobs.

Question 4

Subjective (Rating) Measures

Answer 4

Rely on judgment of a rater; used to assess less concrete aspects of job

Useful for assessing complex, less concrete aspects of job performance, such as motivation, ability to supervise, problem-solving ability, and effectiveness when working with others

Disadvantages –> Raters are sometimes not motivated to provide accurate ratings or do not understand the rating scale; measures are also affected by rater biases (see below), which limit their reliability and validity

Question 5

Subjective Ratings Techniques

Answer 5

(1) Personnel Comparison Systems
- involve comparing him/her to other employees on each job behavior (ranked best to worst)
- Paired Comparison – each employee is compared to every other employee)
- Forced Distribution system – rater categorizes employees into a predetermined distribution (e.g., top 10%, next 25%, middle 30%, bottom 10%, etc.)
- advantage: reduce effect of certain rater bias (e.g., central tendency, leniency and strictness)

(2) Critical Incidents
- likerty scale, each point is anchored with a description of a job behavior
- specific job behaviors associated with very good performance (talks about problems effectively) or poor performance (late to work)

(3) Behaviorally Anchored Rating Scales (BARS)
- employees rated on several dimensions of job performance (e.g., motivation, decision-making)
- set of “behavior anchors” (critical incidents) is created, w/ each anchor being tied to a numerical point on a likert scale
- supervisors responsible for identifying job dimensions
- differs from others bc involves many steps
- advantage: gives info useful for employee feedback
- disadvantages: time-consuming and position specific

E.g., An example for a clinical psychologist on a BARS for Rating Clinical Empathy:
7: Is very supportive and concerned if patient is distressed.
6: Makes appropriately-timed interventions.
5: Allows patient freedom to express him or herself.
4: Inquires if patient has any feelings he or she wishes to discuss.
3: Speaks a lot about him or herself.
2: Discusses patient with colleague in an exhibitionistic manner.
1: Is often late to begin sessions and/or often cancels sessions.

(4) Behavioral-Observation Scales (BOS)
- similar to BARS
- only rater indicates how often the employee performs each critical item (always, sometimes, never)

(5) Forced Choice Checklists (FCCL)
- presents the rater with a series of statements that have been grouped so that the statements in each group are similar in terms of social desirability
- advantage: helps reduce social desirability and other rater biases

Question 6

Rater Biases

Answer 6

accuracy of subjective ratings can be limited by rater biases

1) halo effect - judge performance based on 1 ASPECT of person’s behavior
- E.g., if a supervisor gives a high rating to an employee on cooperation and, as a result, also gives the employee high ratings on other unrelated dimensions of job behavior, the supervisor is exhibiting a positive halo. In contrast, if the supervisor rates an employee low on cooperation and then also gives the employee low ratings on other dimensions, the supervisor is exhibiting a negative halo

2) central tendency bias - tendency to assign AVERAGE ratings to all ratees

3) leniency bias - gives all ratees POSITIVE ratings

4) strictness (severity) bias - gives all NEGATIVE ratings to all ratees

5) contrast effect - if first 3 are poor, make 4th higher than should be
- e.g., when rating employees, if the first 3 employees are very poor workers, the rater might give the fourth employee (who is actually mediocre) inaccurately high ratings

BEST WAY TO REDUCE BIAS = adequately train rater
-training most effective when focusing less on rating errors and more on accuracy (i.e., teaching raters to recognize the multiple contributors to good job performance and to evaluate behavior in an objective way)

Frame-of-Reference Training - teaching raters to recognize contributors for job performance and evaluate behaviors in an objective way; designed to ensure different raters have the same
conceptualizations of job performance and reduce rater bias

Question 7

Rater Biases

Answer 7

accuracy of subjective ratings can be limited by rater biases

1) halo effect
- tendency to judge all aspects of a person’s behavior on the basis of a single attribute or characteristic
- E.g., if a supervisor gives a high rating to an employee on cooperation and, as a result, also gives the employee high ratings on other unrelated dimensions of job behavior, the supervisor is exhibiting a positive halo. In contrast, if the supervisor rates an employee low on cooperation and then also gives the employee low ratings on other dimensions, the supervisor is exhibiting a negative halo

2) central tendency, leniency, and strictness biases
- central tendency bias = tendency to assign average ratings to all ratees
- leniency bias = tendency to give all ratees positive ratings
- strictness bias = tendency to assign negative ratings to all ratees
3) contrast effect
- tendency to give ratings on the basis of comparisons to other ratees
- e.g., when rating employees, if the first 3 employees are very poor workers, the rater might give the fourth employee (who is actually mediocre) inaccurately high ratings

BEST WAY TO REDUCE BIAS = adequately train rater
-trainign most effective when focuses less on rating errors and more on accuracy (i.e., teaching raters to recognize the multiple contributors to good job performance and to evaluate behavior in an objective way)

Frame-of-Reference Training was designed to help raters recognize the multidimensional nature of job performance and to ensure that different raters have the same conceptualizations of job performance

Question 8

Personal Selection

Answer 8

Personnel selection techniques = work samples, interviews, biographical inventories, assessment centers and standardized tests.

Cognitive Ability Tests (also called General Mental Ability and General Intelligence Tets) and Job Knowledge Tets have been shown to have the highest validity for job selection purposes across different jobs vs. Interest Inventories which have the lowest validity
- General mental ability = valid predictors of job performance across setting and increase as the complexity of job increases (.51 = Schmitt et al. 1998; .75 = Hunter and Hunter 1984)

Question 9

General Mental Ability (also called cognitive ability and general intelligence) Tests

Answer 9

General mental ability (also called cognitive ability and general intelligence) are the most valid predictor of job performance across settings
+ increase as the complexity of job increases

(validity coefficients –> .51 = Schmitt et al. 1998; .75 = Hunter and Hunter 1984)

Question 10

Job Knowledge Tests

Answer 10

used when individuals have previous experience or training; good predictors of performance

Question 11

Work Samples

Answer 11

sample of work behavior in standardized, job-like conditions; reduces discrimination of minorities

E.g., carving dexterity test for dental students; shorthand and stenography tests; programming tests for computer programmers; and the in-basket test for managers

Roth, Bobko and McFarland (2005), an observed mean correlation between work sample tests and measures of job performance of .33 was found when measures of job performance (e.g., supervisory ratings) were corrected for attenuation. The research also suggests that work samples of motor skills have more validity than work samples of verbal skills (Asher and Sciarrino, 1974)

Advantages of work samples as a selection technique are that they are acceptable to applicants and are less likely than other methods to unfairly discriminate against members of minority groups

Also used as Trainability Test, designed to identify people who are likely to benefit from training

Work samples are sometimes part of a Realistic Job Preview, which may also include a written description of the job, interviews, group discussions with current employees, and other activities. The purpose of a realistic job preview is to prevent unrealistic expectations about a job in order to reduce turnover.

Question 12

Interviews

Answer 12

Commonly used, but not accurate in prediction

Question 13

Assessment Centers

Answer 13

interviews, tests, and simulated work situations; “in basket” test; evaluated by assessment team on series of dimensions, decision making, motivation, flexibility, etc

Question 14

Personality Tests

Answer 14

“Big Five” – OCEAN –> Openness, Conscientiousness, Extraversion, Agreeableness, Neuroticism

Conscientiousness is an accurate predictor of job performance and training success

Question 15

Integrity Tests

Answer 15

Used to reduce probability employees will steal, drink, fight, sabotage equip, etc.

Question 16

Adverse Impact (Legal Issues in Personnel Selection)

Answer 16

Adverse Impact – occurs when minority group members are hired at a substantially lower rate than majority group members

80% or 4/5 Rule
(% majority hired x .80)
if % minority hired is less than this # = discrimination

• Causes:
  1. Differential Validity - when selection procedure is a valid
  predictor of performance in 1 group but not another
• when validity coefficients for 2 groups differ sig
• e.g., selection test w/ very high validity for males but very low for females
  2. Unfairness - when 1 group scores lower than another group
• selection test might be a good predictor for both groups, but if 1 group consistently scores lower on test, they are less likely to be hired

When selecting or evaluating personnel, legal issues must be considered, especially those set forth in the EEOC’s Uniform Guidelines.

Methods to compensate for bias:
1) separate cutoffs
2) within group norming
3) banding

Question 17

Score adjustments (when adverse impact)

Answer 17

1) separate cutoff - different cutoffs for different groups
2) within group morning - convert raw scores into standard scores varied by group
3) banding - treat scores in a given range as the same
- i.e., band 1 is 91-100, band 2 is 80-91

Question 18

1) Incremental Validity

Answer 18

usefulness of a selection test in terms of decision-making accuracy
- subtract “base rate” from “positive hit” rate

• incremental validity is affected by the selection ratio (percentage of applicants to be hired), the base rate (proportion of current employees considered successful), and the measure’s validity coefficient

Question 19

Unit of Analysis

Answer 19

assess the cost-effectiveness of a selection procedure; most common = dollar gain

Question 20

Combining Predictors

Answer 20

provides more info about applicant than just 1 predictor
- to ensure each predictor is not providing redundant info, each predictor should have a low correlation w/ other predictors

Question 21

Multicollinearity

Answer 21

when predictors are highly correlated

Question 22

Multiple Regression

Answer 22

used to estimate an applicant’s score on a criterion on the basis of 2 or more predictors

if an applicant gets 1 low score, they can make up for it

Question 23

Multiple Cutoff

Answer 23

applicants must score above a minimum cutoff point on each predictor to be hired

low score cannot be made up for and minimum competency is needed in all domain

Question 24

Hurdle

Answer 24

(Multiple) Hurdle

also concompensatory; must meet minimum on 1 test, before going to other

unlike multiple cutoff, not all predictors are administered to all applications; can save time and money

Question 25

Training

Answer 25

1st Step in developing training program = Needs Analysis
(1) organization analysis
(2) task analysis
(3) person analysis

2nd Step = Program Design
- involves choosing the appropriate training program format (e.g., on-the-job training, vestibule training, classroom training, or programmed instruction)

3rd Step = Program Evaluation
- Effectiveness of training is assessed
- Evaluations can be formative (which take place as the program is being developed) or summative (conducted after the program is complete)

Question 26

Career Counseling

Answer 26

Tests used in career counseling:
- achievement tests (measure how much content a person has mastered in a particular content domain)
- aptitude tests (measure a person’s potential for learning)
- interest inventories

Theories related to career choice focus either on:
- Personality Variables that Affect Career Decisions
E.g., Holland’s Personality and Environmental Typology
- Stages of Career Development
E.g., Super’s Career and Life Development Theory

Question 27

Theories of Career Choice

Question 28

Holland’s Personality and Environment Typology

Answer 28

• 6 personlaity types
• (RIASEC) realistic (machinery or tools), investigative (analytic, curious, and precise), artistic (expressive, nonconforming, and introspective), social (enjoys working with others), enterprising (manipulate others to goals or gain), and conventional (data, filing, and records)
• congruence - fit between personality type and environment
• differentiation - high on only one, most accurate predictor of job related outcome

Question 29

Roe’s Fields and Levels Theory

Answer 29

• vocational choice links to experience with parents
• 3 parenting types: (1) overprotective, (2) avoidant, and (3) acceptant
• 8 occupational fields, 6 occupational levels
• if they had to work hard to get childhood needs, they will have higher occupational level in their chosen field

Question 30

Super’s Career and Life Development Theory

Answer 30

• sequence of 5 developmental stages, first one must be met to move to another
• growth, exploration, establishment, maintenance, and decline
  -career maturity - extent to which the person has mastered tasks related to his developmental stage
• life space - varied social roles adapted at different points during life span
• life career rainbow - nine major life roles that people adopt during the 5 different stages

Question 31

Tiedeman and O’Hare’s Decision Making Model

Answer 31

• not only making a living, but making a life
• based their concepts on theory of ego identity
• posed careerrelated correlates to each of Erikson’s eight psychosocial crisis resolutions

Question 32

Miller-Tiedman and Tiedeman’s Decision Making Model

Answer 32

• personal reality and common reality
• personal - thought, act, or behavior that the individual feels is right for himself
• common - what others say you should do

Question 33

Gottfredson’s Theory of Circumscription and Compromise

Answer 33

• how gender and prestige influence or limit career choice
• 4 stages of cognitive development: orientation to size and power,
  orientation to sex roles, influence of social class, and introspection/perceptiveness

Question 34

Krumboltz’s Social Learning Theory of Career Decision Making (SLTCDM)

Answer 34

• career transitions result from learning experiences and encounters
• 4 types of influence on making career decisions:
  (1) genetic/special abilities
  (2) environmental conditions and events
  (3) learning experiences
  (4) task approach skills (work habits, emotional reponses, etc

Question 35

Taylor’s Scientific Management

Answer 35

• founder of scientific management
• Principles: use scientific methods to determine the best way of doing a particular job; divide jobs into their most elementary components; use incentive system in which pay depends on output to motivate workers
• Assumption: that worker motivation effects work and that average worker needs constant supervision

Question 36

Weber’s Bureaucracy

Answer 36

• thought effectiveness was maximized when the organization adopts a bureaucratic structure with formal rules, regulations, etc
• today bureaucracies are considered overly rigid and inefficient

Question 37

Human Relations Approach

Answer 37

• work performance is effected primarily by social factors like attitudes and informal work norms
• “Hawthorne Effect” improvement in performance resulting from increased attention

Question 38

Systems Approach

Answer 38

• organization is an open system that receives input from both inside and outside
• organization as a whole is greater than the sum of its parts
• assumptions: workers have diverse needs; organizations vary in terms of structure, culture, etc.; no one managerial strategy that will work for all people/organizations at all times

Question 39

Theory Z

Answer 39

• combines the best of Japanese “Theory J” and American “Theory A”
• like “Theory J” advocates consensual decision-making, slow promotion, and holistic knowledge of the organization
• like “Theory A” supports individual responsibility
• emphasizes: long-term employment with a moderately specialized career path

Question 40

Total Quality Management (TQM)

Answer 40

• flatten traditional managerial hierarchy, increase teamwork, reduce ratio of managers to non managers
• jobs have skill variety, task variety, autonomy, participation, and empowerment, task significance, and feedback

Jobs that reflect a TQM approach are characterized by:
1. Skill Variety: Workers are cross-trained to increase their range of knowledge and skills; constant learning and development is required)
2. Task Variety: Workers work on a whole product or component of a product and see how their work fits into the “bigger picture”
3. Autonomy, Participation, and Empowerment: Workers have a high degree of decision-making authority.
4. Task Significance: Contact and communication with external customers is part of the work process.
5. Feedback: Feedback comes directly from the work process (rather than from management)

Question 41

Leadership Styles (Autocratic, Democratic, Laissez-Faire)

Answer 41

• Autocratic- make decisions alone and tell subordinates what to do
• Democratic- involve subordinates in decision making process
• Laissez-Faire- allow subordinates to make decisions on own

Question 42

Leadership Theories (Theory X, Theory Y)

Answer 42

Leadership Theories
-McGregor 1960
-Theory X - work is generally distasteful, workers lack ambition and need to be directed, motivation is dominated by lower level needs; consistent with scientific management
- Theory Y- workers are self-directed, responsible, and ambitious, require freedom and autonomy; consistent with human relations approach

Question 43

Fielder’s Contingency (LPC) Theory

Answer 43

• High LPC(Least Preferred Coworker) describe their least-preferred coworker in positive terms and are relationship oriented
• Low LPC describe their LPC in negative terms and are task and achievement oriented
• “Favorableness” degree to which a leader can control and influence subordinates
• High LPC leaders are most effective when situation is moderately favorable; Low LPC leaders are most effective when situation is highly favorable or not at all

Question 44

House’s Path-Goal Theory of Leadership

Answer 44

• satisfaction and motivation are maximized when people perceive that their leader is helping them towards a goal
• leader can accomplish this by:
  (1) helping subs identify specific ways to achieve goals
  (2) remove obstacles to goals
  (3) reward subs for accomplishing goals

Question 45

Hersey and Blanchard’s Situational Leadership Model

Answer 45

• optimal leadership style depends on the job maturity of subs, which is determined by his ability and willingness to accept responsibility
• low willingness and ability = telling style
• low ability, high willingness = selling style
• high ability, low willingness = participating style
• high ability and willingness = delegating style (ability and willingness to accept responsibility)

Question 46

Transformational vs Transactional Leadership

Answer 46

• transformational: charisma influence, inspirational motivation, intellectual stimulation, individualized consideration; change-focused; motivate subs by activating higher-order needs and appealing to higher ideals like justice and equality
• transactional: focus more on stability that change; leadership by contingent reinforcement; subs are motivated by rewards, promises, and punishments

Question 47

Vroom and Yetton’s Normative Decision Making Model

Answer 47

• 5 leadership models that are distinguished by the extent to which the leader includes groups members in the decision-making process
  1. AI (autocratic) leaders
  2. AII (autocratic) leaders
  3. CI (consultive) leaders
  4. CII (consultive) leaders
  5. GII (group decision) leaders
• “decision tree” indicates optimal leadership style based on series of questions about the situation

Question 48

Leader Member Exchange (LMX) Theory

Answer 48

• leadership is a process that is centered on the interactions between leaders and members
• members all in “in-group” or “out-group”
• LMX (Leader Member Exchange) encourages leaders to become aware of their attitudes towards members and create methods for all employees to enter the “in-group”
• Research - LMX theory is positively related to “higher job satisfaction, stronger organizational commitment, and better subordinate performance”

Question 49

Phases of Organizational Development (OD)

Answer 49

7 distinct phases
1. Entry - identification of the need for organization change
2. Contracting - OD consultant specifies terms and conditions of his involvement
3. Diagnosis - assess problems and collects data
4. Feedback - organization is helped to understand data
5. Planning - consultant and decision-makers develop corrective-action plan
6. Intervention - action plan is implemented
7. Evaluation - progress of intervention is assessed

Question 50

Quality of Work Life Interventions

Answer 50

Quality of Work Life Interventions
- organization effectiveness increases as worker satisfaction, motivation, and commitment increase
- make jobs more interesting and challenging
- provide workers with greater participation in decision making
- quality circles (QCs)- small groups of workers meet to discuss how work can be improved

Question 51

Organization Surveys

Answer 51

• used to assess employee attitudes and opinions
• results are provided to employees or management teams in group settings to discuss potential solutions to identified problems

Question 52

Process Consultation

Answer 52

• refers to efforts to help team members understand and alter processes that are undermining their interactions
• target include: 1. communication, 2. decision-making, 3. conflict resolution, and 4. individual roles in groups

Question 53

Organizational Change Strategies (Empirical-Rational, Normative-Reeducative, Power-Coercive)

Answer 53

• Empirical-Rational - if workers have all relevant information about the situation, they will act in accord to their self-interest
• Normative-Reeducative - focus on changing attitudes, values, and relationships in order to bring about change and acceptance of the change
• Power-Coercive - involves using rewards, punishment, or legitimate authority to coerce workers to comply with change

Question 54

Communication Networks (Centralized, Decentralized)

Answer 54

• Centralized- all communication must pass through one person; more efficient when tasks are simple and mundane
• Decentralized- information flows freely among everyone; works best when jobs are complex and cooperation is needed to complete task;
  *result in higher individual satisfaction

Question 55

Individual Decision Making

Answer 55

• Rational-Economic Model - “maximizing”( search for all possible solutions and weigh alternatives; takes time and money)
• Administrative Model - “satisficing” evaluate solutions as they become available and take the first solution that works; more often used bc decision makers are bound by constraints and cant always display perfectly rational decision making

Question 56

Driver’s Decision Making Styles

Answer 56

• identified by 2 key factors: (1) amount of information considered and (2) focus or number of alternative decisions identified
• satisficers - minimal amount of info until “good enough” found
• maximizers - slow to act and review all resources available
• decisive - satisfying + uni-focus; chose one course of action and stick with it
• flexible - satisfying + multi-focus; makes fast moves, but willing to drop for a better tactic
• hierarchic - maxim/uni-focus; identify best solution and develop detailed plan
• integrative- maxim/multi-focus; lot of information to evaluate situation and also develop alternatives
• systemic - maximizing, but sometimes uni and sometimes multi, may take several course of action at once; value creativity

**which style is best depends upon the characteristics of the situation

Question 57

Prospect Theory (Kahneman and Tversky, 1979)

Answer 57

• Kahneman and Tversky (1979)
• Loss aversion
• People are more influenced by potential loss than gain
• Not adverse to risk, rather adverse to loss; less willing to take risk to experience gain; more willing to take risk to avoid suffering loss

Question 58

Organizational Justice

Answer 58

• distributive justice - perceived fairness of outcomes (e.g., hiring, performance appraisals, raises, and layoffs)
• procedural justice - perceived fairness of the process by which outcomes are allocated
• interactional justice - perceptions of the interpersonal exchange between an individual and supervisor or third party
• informational justice - amount of information or the appropriateness of explanations provided why procedures were used or outcomes were distributed
• interpersonal justice - how an individual is treated by a supervisor or third party involved in determining and executing outcomes

Question 59

Organizational Culture

Answer 59

• 1st level- behavior and observable artifacts; dress code, work spaces, tells us what the group is doing, but not why
• 2nd level - values
• 3rd level- underlying assumptions; thoughts, beliefs, perceptions, etc.)

Question 60

Gender Issues in Organizations

Answer 60

• pretty women may be at a disadvantage, but handsome men are judged to be more suitable
• no big differences in leadership style, however, women tend to be more concerned with relationships and task accomplishment
• women managers are sometimes evaluated less favorably than males
• women earn about 60 cents on the dollar by men

Question 61

Maslow’s Hierarchy of Needs

Answer 61

5 basic needs
1. psychological
2. safety
3. social
4. esteem
5. actualization

• suggests workers will exert to meet their lowest level of unmet needs
• not much empirical support

Question 62

Alderfer’s ERG Theory

Answer 62

• based on Maslow

3 needs
1. existence
2. relatedness
3. growth

• needs don’t necessarily arise in order

Question 63

McClelland’s Need for Achievement

Answer 63

• used TAT cards to find needs that underlie motivation
• primary motivator = need for achievement (nACh)
• people with high nACh desire autonomy and responsibility, prefer moderately hard goals, and seek recognition for their efforts
• also need for power (nPOW) and need for affiliation (nAFF)

Question 64

Herzberg’s Two-Factor Theory

Answer 64

• theory of motivation and satisfaction
• satisfaction/dissatisfaction
• hygiene factors - meet lower order needs (e.g., pay, benefits, and relationships w/ coworkers); when absent worker is dissatisfied, but presence does not cause satisfaction
• motivator factors - fulfill higher order needs (opportunities for responsibility, decision-making, and growth); when present worker is motivated and satisfied, but when absent does not cause dissatisfaction
  **job enrichment - increase satisfaction and decrease absenteeism

Question 65

The Job Characteristics Model

Answer 65

5 job characteristics that influence internal work motivation, job satisfaction, work quality, absenteeism, and turnover
1. skill variety (more skill required, the more meaningful it is)
2. task identity (jobs that constitute a whole piece of work are more meaningful than those that consist of some portion of the whole job)
3. task significance (jobs w/ clear importance are more meaningful than those that don’t)
4. autonomy (jobs are more meaningful to the degree that they allow for the work independence, freedom, and decision making author
5. feedback (jobs providing built-in feedback are. more meaningful than those do not)

• when jobs are redesigned according to these 5 characteristics, there are improvements in motivation, satisfaction, absenteeism, and turnover

Question 66

Goal-Setting Theory (Locke, 1970)

Answer 66

• Locke (1970)
• most important contribution to worker’s willingness to work is conscious acceptance and commitment to goals***
• it is best when goals are specific, moderately difficult, and paired with frequent feedback re progress
• Management by Objective - (MBO) based on goal-setting theory; involves having worker agree to specific measurable goals that employee with accomplish during a specific time period

Question 67

Equity Theory

Answer 67

• ratio of input/outcome
• if person believes they are underpaid they will decrease work quality; if person believes they are overpaid they will increase work quality
• if inequity is not alleviated by this, person will quit
• underpayment has a greater impact on performance than overpayment
• outcome justice (fairness of outcomes such as raises and promotions) and procedural justice (fairness of procedures used to determine outcomes)

Question 68

Expectancy Theory

Answer 68

• motivation is function of 3 variables
  1. belief that effort will result in successful performance (expectancy)
  2. belief that successful performance will lead to certain outcomes (instrumentality)
  3. desirability of those outcomes (valence)

Question 69

Deci’s Model of Intrinsic Motivation

Answer 69

theory of motivation

people doing puzzles spent less time when given external reward

Question 70

Incentive Theory

Answer 70

theory of motivation

incentives motivate employees to be most productive

Question 71

Personal Characteristics (Job Satisfaction)

Answer 71

• older the employee the more satisfied they are
• level in organization hierarchy is correlated with satisfaction
• non-whites are more likely to express dissatisfaction than whites
• satisfaction is relatively stable over time, people who are satisfied tend to be satisfied and people who are dissatisfied stay dissatisfied

Question 72

Job Characteristics (Job Satisfaction)

Answer 72

• pay and satisfaction are positively correlated, but could be for other reasons
• it is more important that one think his salary is fair than the actual amount
• two determinates of fairness: the extent to which pay is related to performance and comparable worth
• skill utilization is very important and is the strongest predictor of job success for a variety of jobs

Question 73

Consequence of Satisfaction (Job Satisfaction)

Answer 73

• satisfaction and absenteeism and turnover are moderately negatively correlated
• satisfaction and performance have positive but weak correlation
• when pay is tied to performance, there is a positive correlation; when it is not there is a negative correlation
• work satisfaction is a better predictor of longevity than physical health or tobacco use
• job dissatisfaction can cause fatigue, substance abuse, headache, loss of appetite, etc.

Question 74

Organizational Commitment (Job Satisfaction)

Answer 74

• organizational commitment when jobs provide personal growth and responsibility
• a potential negative to commitment is that it may increase resistance to change

Question 75

Person-Machine Systems

Answer 75

• focus of engineering psychology: person-machine systems
• people are flexible, but cannot be depended on to perform consistently
• people –> are better at recognizing patterns from situation to situation, detecting unusual phenomena, setting priorities, generalizing observations, and coming up with new solutions
• machines –> are better at detecting stimuli that fall outside of human senses, working in presence of environmental distractions, storing large quantities of info quickly, sustaining performance, etc

Question 76

Work Schedules (Compressed Work Week, Flextime, Shift Work)

Answer 76

Compressed Work Week
- increases overall employee satisfaction
- does not have strong impact on objective measures of job performance or absenteeism

Flextime
- increases job satisfaction, satisfaction with schedule, productivity and decreases absenteeism
- does not have clear effect on performance

Shift Work
- less productive on night shift than day shift
- more errors and accidents
- rotating shifts in the worst and results in lower productivity, higher accident rates, and physical and mental health problems

Question 77

Fatigue (Rest Breaks), Stress, Burnout

Answer 77

Rest Breaks (reduce fatigue)
- useful in reducing fatigue and maintaining high levels o productivity
- reduce errors, accidents, and length of official breaks
- should be scheduled before fatigue sets in

Stress
- stress and stress-related illness have increased in past 2 decades
- major source of stress = having no control over one’s work environment
- violence in workplace and recent downsizing are also stressful
- highest stress occupational are police officer, fire fighter, computer programmer, dental assistant, electrician, plumber, social worker, hairdresser, and phone operator.
- therapists consider “lack of therapeutic success” to be more stressful aspect
- lower performance, increased absenteeism, and physical/mental illness

Burnout
- potential response to chronic stress
- higher among women, single and divorced employees, people who have no opportunity for promotion, and professionals who frequently deal with other people

Question 78

Work-Family Conflict

Answer 78

• women experience more conflict than men
• incompatible home and work roles

Question 79

Safety and Accidents

Answer 79

• humans account for most accidents (50-80%)
• factors include: young age, excessive heat or noise, alcohol use, poor attitudes towards safety, poor vision, and emotional instability
  **training is the single most effective way to improve safe work behaviors
• should focus on both safety behaviors and attitudes towards safety
• programs with positive theme work better than scare tactics
  *posters are not that effective, but work best with specific messages
• management commitment to safety programs is key to their success
  *providing incentives for accident reduction works well

Question 80

The Work Environment (Noise, Music)

Answer 80

Noise
- intermittent noise is more distracting than constant noise
- perceived control over noise is critical factor

Music
- music has slight positive effect on mundane activities; no consistent positive or negative effects shown for complex tasks