Hypotheses, Ethics & Variables

Question 1

Theory

Answer 1

An organised system for explaining certain phenomena and how they are related (e.g. Darwin’s theory of evolution)

Question 2

Hypothesis

Answer 2

A specific and falsifiable prediction regarding the relationship between or among two or more variables. A brief, tentative statement about what the researcher expects to find. Theories are more complex and comprehensive than hypotheses

Question 3

Deductive method

Answer 3

The process of using a theory (general) to generate specific ideas that can be tested through research

Question 4

A good hypothesis is

Answer 4

Logical
Testable
Refutable
Positive

Question 5

Evaluate this hypothesis

• The colour red is seen differently by males and females

Answer 5

Not testable or refutable.

The question concerns an internal, subjective experience that cannot be observed or measured.

Question 6

Evaluate this hypothesis

• A list of three-syllable words is more difficult to memorise that a list of one syllable words 


Answer 6

Yes, testable and refutable

A good opportunity for students to develop a brief version of a research proposal.

Question 7

Evaluate this hypothesis

• The incidence of paranoia is higher among people who claim to have been abducted by aliens than in the general population

Answer 7

Yes, testable and refutable.

Although the topic of UFOs and aliens may seem outside the realm of science, the task of measuring paranoia is perfectly acceptable.

Question 8

Testable

Answer 8

It must be possible to observe and measure all of the variables involved

Question 9

Refutable

Answer 9

It must be possible to obtain research results that are contrary to the prediction. That is, it must be capable of being demonstrated as false

Question 10

Evaluate this hypothesis

Evaluate this hypotheiss

If the force of gravity doubled over the next 50,000 years, there would be a trend toward the evolution of larger animals and plants that could withstand the higher gravity

Answer 10

Not testable or refutable.

The question concerns a hypothetical situation that does not exist and cannot be created.

Question 11

Research Variables

Answer 11

The IV and the DV

Question 12

Independent variable (Cause)

Answer 12

The factor that is controlled and manipulated by the researcher. The variable whose effect is being studied.

Correlational designs -predictor variable

Question 13

Dependent variable (Effect)

Answer 13

The factor that may change in response to manipulations of the independent variable. In Psychology it is usually a behaviour or mental process.

Correlational designs - Outcome variable

Question 14

Ethics in research

General Principles of the APA Code of Ethics

Answer 14

• Beneficence and Non-maleficence (maximise benefit and avoid harm)
• Fidelity and responsibility
• Integrity
• Justice
• Respect for People’s Rights and Dignity

Question 15

Reasons for ethics guidelines

Answer 15

Scientists sometimes engage in practices that may be questioned on ethical grounds

Question 16

Welfare of the individuals

Answer 16

Balance between protecting participant rights, and the greater good that can come from research. Can be asked – what is the cost of not doing some research? E.g. drug trials

Question 17

4 Basic Goals of Ethical Research

Answer 17

• No Harm
• Informed Consent
• Awareness (and mitigation) of the power differentials (avoid abuses of power)
• Honesty and transparency describing the research (minimal deception and debriefing)

Question 18

Variable

Answer 18

A variable refers to any attribute that can assume different values (e.g. in different people, or within the same person at different times).

Question 19

There are two types of variables:

Answer 19

1. Manipulated variables, controlled by the experimenter

2. Measured variables, observed by the experimenter

Question 20

Experimental studies make use of both types of variables

Answer 20

• In experiments, we manipulate (either directly or indirectly) the values or levels of one or more variables & measure the effect(s) on one or more other variables. e.g., does a warm and encouraging teaching style foster more learning (better exam marks) than a cold and arrogant teaching style?

Question 21

Observational studies make use of only measured variables

Answer 21

• If we cannot manipulate the values of any of the variables of interest, then we resort to measuring all of the variables.

Question 22

An independent variable is one that the researcher directly manipulates. If the researcher cannot directly manipulate the independent variable, then s/he conducts a

Answer 22

quasi-experimental study

Question 23

• Quasi-independent variables

Answer 23

Quasi-independent variables are variables that the researcher indirectly manipulates E.g., the researcher can indirectly manipulate sex by gathering an equal number of male and female participants to receive each dosage of the antidepressant.

Question 24

If the researcher cannot manipulate (directly or indirectly) either variable, then s/he conducts an

Answer 24

observational (correlational) study

E.g., are depressed people more or less likely to be smokers than non-depressed people?  The IV (which is observed and not manipulated) is depression

Question 25

Conceptual variables

Answer 25

Abstract ideas that form the basis of research designs and that are measured (e.g. parenting styles, self-esteem).

Question 26

Measured variables

Answer 26

Numbers that represent conceptual variables and that can be used in data analysis

Question 27

Operational definition

Answer 27

A precise statement of how a conceptual variable is measured or manipulated. • A procedure for indirectly measuring and defining a variable that cannot be observed or measured directly.

Question 28

Measurement

Answer 28

The assignment of numbers to objects or events according to specific rules

Question 29

Scales of measurement

Answer 29

• The numbers we assign to the objects or events can have different qualities

Nominal
Ordinal
Interval
Ratio

Question 30

Nominal Scale

Answer 30

A measurement scale consisting of categories which are differentiated only by qualitative names. Categorical variables such as sex and marital status.

Question 31

Ordinal Scale

Answer 31

A scale in which objects or individuals are categorised and the categories form a rank order along a continuum. Ordinal variables are ranked variables such as 1st place and 2nd place.

Question 32

Interval scale

Answer 32

A scale in which the units of measurement (intervals) between the numbers on the scale are all equal in size. A measured variable in which equal changes in the measured variable are known to correspond to equal changes in the conceptual variable being measured such as temperature where there is no natural zero point (i.e. 0 degrees does not mean no temperature)

Question 33

Ratio scale

Answer 33

In addition to order and equal units of measurement, there is an absolute zero that indicates an absence of the variable being measures e.g. speed, length or BAC.

Question 34

Two primary types of measures in psychology research

Answer 34

Self-report measures

Behavioural measures

Question 35

Self-report measures

Answer 35

Individuals are asked to respond to questions about themselves

Issue: Do people know the answer? Are they truthful?

Question 36

Behavioural measures

Answer 36

Individuals’ actions are observed

Question 37

Free-format self-report measures

Answer 37

Measures variables in which respondents are asked to freely list their thoughts or feeling as they come to mind.

Such as Rorschach tests and word association

Question 38

Difficulties with free-format

Answer 38

Coding

Inter-rater reliability

Takes a long time and generates lots of data

Question 39

Fixed-format self-report measures

Answer 39

Measured variables in which the respondent indicates his or her thoughts or feelings by answering a structured set of questions.

Involves answering from a list of items or scales such as a likert scale (strongly agree, agree etc).

Question 40

Likert Scale

Answer 40

A fixed–format self–report scale that consists of a series of items that indicate agreement or disagreement with the issue that is to be measured, each with a set of responses on which the respondents indicate their opinions.

Question 41

Acquiescent responding (yeah saying bias)

Answer 41

A problem with Likert scales. A form of reactivity in which people tend to agree with whatever questions they are asked. Can be solved with reverse scoring.

Question 42

Reverse scoring

Answer 42

On some items (e.g. 1) Strongly agree means high SE

On other items (e.g. 3) Strongly agree means low SE (asterisks)

Question 43

Self-Report Measure Advantages

Answer 43

• Easy to construct
• Easy administer
• Quick (ask lots of Q’s)
• Flexible (e.g. many different types of Q’s can be asked)
• Useful (because lots of Q’s asked, should produce useful data)

Question 44

Self-report measure Disadvantages

Answer 44

• Assumes participants are willing and able to answer Qs
• Does not always correspond with what would be observed

Reactivity

Dishonest answers. Participants may lie in an effort to make themselves look better or to chose the desired result or to be considered socially desirable or acceptable.

Question 45

How to control for reactivity

Answer 45

Administer a social desirability scale to measure individual’s tendencies to lie or self-promote. Use MMPI validity scales or a defensiveness scales to determine which participants should not be trusted.

Question 46

Behavioural Measures

Answer 46

Measured variables designed to directly measure an individual’s actions. Can overcome some self-report disadvantages

Question 47

Behavioural Measures can be based on

Answer 47

1. Frequency (e.g., stuttering in speech)
2. Duration (e.g., number of mins worked on a task – measure ‘interest’)
3. Intensity (e.g., loudness of hand claps)
4. Latency (e.g., days to start project – procrastination)
5. Speed (e.g., time taken to run maze – learning)

Question 48

Nonreactive behavioural measures

Answer 48

• Behavioural measures that are designed to avoid reactivity because the respondent is not aware that the measurement is occurring, does not realise what the measure is designed to assess, or cannot change his or her responses.

Question 49

Physical Measures

Answer 49

Psychophysiological measures

Brain Imaging (EEG, MRI, PET, CAT)

Psychophysiological measures (Heart rate, blood pressure, respiration etc)

Question 50

Psychophysiological measures

Answer 50

Measures designed to assess the physiological functioning of the nervous or endocrine system. Even if the P knows what is you’re interested in measuring, they can’t change their response

Question 51

Choosing a measure

Answer 51

• Self-Report

1. Pro: Efficient
2. Con: Reactivity

• Behavioural

1. Pro: Reduces reactivity (if participant doesn’t know)
2. Difficult to operationalise

Question 52

Random Error

Answer 52

Chance fluctuations in measurement that influence scores on measured variables. Can be due to not understanding items, how well a participant is feeling or experimenter error in scoring. Inherently unpredictable. Always present, but we can minimise it. Can obscure results however they are not biased.

Question 53

Systematic Error

Answer 53

The influence of other conceptual variables on a measured variable that are not part of the conceptual variable of interest. Biased errors that can occur due to participants answering in a certain way due to anxiety or optimism. These variables systematically increase or decrease scores on the measured variable

Question 54

Reliability and Validity

Answer 54

Techniques for evaluating the relationship between measured and conceptual variables

Question 55

Correlation

Answer 55

Reflects the degree to which variables are related. The most common measure of correlation is the Pearson Product Moment Correlation (called Pearson’s correlation for short). Represented by r

Question 56

Reliability

Answer 56

The extent to which a measured variable is free from random error. The reliability of a measurement procedure is the stability or consistency of the measurement. If the same individuals are measured under the same conditions, a reliable measurement procedure will produce identical (or nearly identical) measurements

Question 57

True score and random error

Answer 57

True score
• “True” ability, “true” level, or the “thing” that we are trying to estimate with our measured variable

Random error
• Chance fluctuations in measurement that influence scores on measured variables.

Question 58

𝑨𝒄𝒕𝒖𝒂𝒍 (𝑶𝒃𝒔𝒆𝒓𝒗𝒆𝒅) 𝑺𝒄𝒐𝒓𝒆 =

Answer 58

𝑻𝒓𝒖𝒆 𝑺𝒄𝒐𝒓𝒆 + 𝑹𝒂𝒏𝒅𝒐𝒎 𝑬𝒓𝒓𝒐𝒓

Question 59

Formula for reliability:

Answer 59

Reliability = true score divided by actual score `

Question 60

Test-Retest Reliability

Answer 60

The extent to which scores on a measurement scale correlate with scores when measured on a second occasion. If measure ISperfectly reliable (no random error) and conceptual variable doesn’t change, then r = 1.00 but there is always some error so r is always less than 1. 1. The closer r is to 1, the stronger the test-retest reliability

Question 61

Rest-Retest Reliability Limitations

Answer 61

Reactivity that occurs when the responses on the second administration are influenced by respondents having been given the same or similar measures before. (trying not to replicate, self-promotion, memory)

Question 62

Alternate-Forms Reliability

Answer 62

A form of test–retest reliability in which two different but equivalent versions of the same measure are given at different times and the correlation between the scores on the two versions is assessed.

Question 63

Split-Half reliability

Answer 63

A measure of reliability that involves correlating the respondents’ scores on one half of the items with their scores on the other half of the items.

Question 64

Inter-rater Reliability

Answer 64

The internal consistency of the ratings made by a group of judges. Can use α. Can be measured as a %.kappa (κ). A statistic used to measure inter-rater reliability

Question 65

Validity

Answer 65

A measure of the ‘truthfulness’ of a measuring instrument. Measurement procedure must accurately capture the variable that it is supposed to measure (construct validity)

Question 66

Construct validity

Answer 66

• The extent to which a measured variable actually measures the conceptual variable that it is designed to assess.

Question 67

Criterion Validity

Answer 67

An assessment of validity calculated through the correlation of a self- report measure with a behavioural measured (criterion) variable. That is, extent to which a measuring instrument accurately predicts behaviour or ability in a given area

Concurrent Validity – present performance (e.g., pass/fail driving test)

Predictive Validity – future performance (e.g., VCE score predict Uni)

Question 68

Face validity

Answer 68

The extent to which a measured variable appears to be an adequate measure of the conceptual variable.

Question 69

Content validity

Answer 69

The degree to which a measured variable appears to have adequately sampled from the potential domain of topics that might relate to the conceptual variable of interest. Emphasises the importance of defining constructs.

Question 70

Relationship Between Reliability and Validity

Answer 70

The validity of a measure is not the same as its reliability. A measure can be less valid than it is reliable, but it cannot be more valid than it is reliable. A measure can be reliable but not valid however a measure cannot be valid and not reliable. Reliability is necessary but not sufficient for validity.