Human Skeleton Essay Readings Flashcards
Waldron, 2007: Cholera
It was during the third epidemic in 1854 that John Snow proved the disease was waterborne
Roberts, 2018: Adapting to disease
- People have a great capacity to adapt to their environment and alter how they function to survive
- E.g. keeping waste out of water supplies
Gooney, 2020: Cholera case study - Excavation of the Richmond Penitentiary cholera cemetary, Grangegorman, Dublin
- Overview/Layout
- Penitentiary served as a hospital and overflow cemetary during the 1832 epidemic
- 1697 crania found on site
- MNI of 1543 based on the left Parietal bone
- Charnel trenches: Likely the trench began to be filled carefully as there are layers of crania on the bottom. Later it was filled by tipping in wheelbarrows of remains.
- Burial ground: 30 burials in 2 discrete parallel rows
Gooney, 2020: Cholera case study - Excavation of the Richmond Penitentiary cholera cemetary, Grangegorman, Dublin
- What can be learnt from the remians
- Individuals had poor dental hygeine
- Women had more caries, men had more calculus
- Both sexes were equally susceptible to dietary deficiencies or illness
- Infections present include syphylis, TB, scurvy
Gooney, 2020: Cholera case study - Excavation of the Richmond Penitentiary cholera cemetary, Grangegorman, Dublin
- Why are the finds important
- Important snapshot of pre-famine population of Dublin city
- Cholera often overshadowed with famine in the 1840s
- The site challenges the conventional wisdom that a short lived short purpose cemetary would have collective pits
- Individual graves were potentially more common
- This was a closely planned and rigorously managed cemetary for the duration of its usage
Suzuki et al, 2008: Skeleton found with potential spinal TB on Nukdo Island, South Korea
- Female, 15-20 years old
- Proliferate lesions on the visceral surface of ribs + thoracic + lumbar bodies observed are consistent with TB
- Rib involvement was also observed, and is common
- Vertebral bodies showed considerable erosion due to inflammatory bodies
- Severe osseous destruction, resorptive changes resulting in exposure of inner spongy texture
- Nukoda was a centre of trade
Byrnes & Muller, 2022: Osteobiographies and the biocultural approach
Osteobiographies underscore the value of humanistic bioarchaeology by considering how skeletal bodies are relational and political, produced through the interactions of society, social identity, and pathology
Khudaverdyan et al 2021: case study
Burial of 2 female warriors at Jrapi cemetray, Northwest Armenian Highlands
Roberts, 2005: Age at death
For non adults, the development, calcification, and eruption of the deciduous and permanent teeths are key
Roberts, 2005: sex estimation
- Sexual dimorphism is only present in adults post puberty
- Sub-adults can be determined in some cases using X-Y chromosome analysis
- Estimation of adults relies of the pelvis and sometimes on the skull
Khudaverdyan et al 2021: Age at death of skeletons
Age was determined by:
- Attrition of the masticatory surface of the tooth crown
- Auricular surface changes
- Degree of epiphyseal union
- Closure of cranial sutures
- Skeleton 1: 45-50 years old
- Skeleton 2: 16-20 years old
Khudaverdyan et al 2021: cause of death for skeleton 1
Killed by a bended arrowhead found stuck in the soft tissue of the intercostal space
Khudaverdyan et al 2021: Health of skeletons
- Both displayed good bone relief on humerus, ulna, radius, thigh bones
- At the proximal ends of femurs there are some enthesopathies previously noted as common in horseriders
- The pectoralis major and deltoid muscles had been used in flexing and adducting the hand, and drawing the bow via the chest
- Horse riders sit on a saddle with the lower back slightly extended, hips flexed and abducted, knees flexed, and ankles dorisflexed. Legs, abs, and back muscles are heavily loaded
Khudaverdyan et al 2021: trauma on skeleton 2
- Blunt force trauma
- Compression fracture of the parietal border of frontal bone
- Antemortem lesions
- Deep wound canal in tibia where arrow fragment was found
- Acute power trauma made mandibular penetrating canal of the second molar
Khudaverdyan et al 2021: Bronze/Iron age Armenia
- Burial dates to late bronze age / early iron age
- Armenia was one of the largest centres of metal production
- Favourable climate, abundant natural resources, fertile soil
Khudaverdyan et al 2021: Armenian weapons/military
- The bow was the dominant weapon of the ancient Armenian military
- Swords, axes, spears used for close combat
Khudaverdyan et al 2021: Skeleton grave contexts + similar sites
- Skeleton 1 held a dagger in her right hand
- Skeleton 2 wore an ametsyt bead on her neck
- High status warriors
- Graves of women holding weapons is rare for ancient Armenia
- Women from the Bover and Jrapi cemeteries had serious injuries on their limb bones, but recieved timely succor and lived for several years after
Zimansky, 1995: Uratu kingdom
Uratu kingdom was rapidly growing through military conquests (Xenophon - inscriptions from C9th BC)
Kurkjian, 1958
Xenophon calls Armenia vast and rich
Tykot, 2004: Advantages of stable isotope analysis over other methods
- Other analytiacl methods (skeletal pathology, pottery residue, macrobotanical remains) only describe ‘the menu’ and pertains to groups over generations
- SIA provides data on individuals
- Allows for comparisons between individuals of different age, sex, socioeconomic tatus, and of sites over time
- Also possible to study seasonal varition in increamental growth tissues such as hair and teeth
Tykot, 2004 - What is the principle of SIA
- Differential fractionation between certain plant groups of atmosphteric carbon dioxide during photosynthesis and of nitrogen during fixation or absorption
- Small differences in the ratios of these isotopes can be measured by isotope ratio mass spectrometry using samples smaller than 1mg
Tykot, 2004: What are the stable isotopes of carbon and nitrogen
- Carbon: 12C, 13C
- Nitrogen: 14N, 15N
- 12C and 14N are the most common in nature
Tykot, 2004: SIA of bone tissues
- Different bone tissues reflect different diet components
- Bone collagen is disproportionately produced from the protein portion of the diet, but bone carbonate and tooth enamel carbonate (apatites) are produced from a mix of protein, carbs, and fats
- SIA of bone collagen and apatite permits quantitative estimates of several dietary components
- Both collagen and apatite are constantly resorbed and replenished, so their isotopic composition reflects dietary averages over at least the last several years
Tykot 2004, SIA of hair and teeth
- Tooth enamel will reflect diet during the age of crown formation
- Teeth form at different ages and can reveal dietary changes (weaning, seasonal)
- Hair also shows short term or seasonal dietary changes
Tykot, 2004: disadvantage of collagen
Collagen is rarely preserved in bones predating the upper Palaeolithic and is often badly degraded in hot and moist environments
Tykot, 2004: Why is SCIA particularly useful in the New World
Maize is often the only C4 plant contributing significantly to human diets
Tykot, 2004: isotope ratio variations
- Nitrogen isotope ratio vary accordingly to rainfall, altitude, and other factors
- Both carbon and nitrogen isotope ratios vary among marine organisms
Tykot, 2004: Isotopic baseline
- It is critical to establish a site relevant isotopic baseline for interpreting human skeletal data
- Particularly important in coastal areas where marine and riverine resources may have been avaible for direct or indirect human consumption
Tykot, 2004: case study example
- SIA has been used to study changes in the Mediterranean:
- The beginning of dietary variation between elite and non-elite people in the Bronze age
- The introduction of African Millet (c4 plant) in the 1st Millenium BC, in Greece and Slovenia
Tykot, 2004: Microsampling of teeth
- Incramental growth structures presents both advantaes and disadvantages
- Archaeologists take very small samples to be minimally destructive but this means the isotopic analysis will be very short term
- Series of enamel layers may then be used to examine short term or seasonal variations in diet
