Human Growth and Development Flashcards
Accommodation
WHAT- Accommodation is a core concept in Jean Piaget’s cognitive development theory that refers to the process of modifying existing schemas to incorporate new information or experiences, altering current understanding.
WHY- This is important as it keeps ones knowledge and understanding of the world up to date and accurate.
EX- A child who initially thinks all vehicles with wheels are “cars” might need to accommodate this schema by learning that a bus, truck, and motorcycle are also vehicles
Adverse childhood events
WHAT- Potentially traumatic childhood experiences (before the age of 18) that have long lasting negative effects. The four categories are abuse (physical, emotional, sexual), neglect, and household dysfunction such as mental illness, substance use, or separation/divorce.
WHY- It is important for a clinician to be aware if a client has experienced an adverse childhood event because it disrupts safety and stability, can trigger stress, affects brain development, and can impact emotional regulation. These events can cause a higher risk for mental illness, substance use, and relationship problems
EX- A 15 year old client comes in saying that they have witnessed domestic violence and substance use in their home growing up. They now have anxiety, depression, and trust issues.
Androgyny
WHAT- Having both masculine and feminine characteristics including appearance, behavior, and attitudes. Person does not fit into gender stereotypes or societal norms. Promotes adaptability and flexibility to embrace traits from both ends of the gender spectrum
WHY- Androgyny is an important part of a clients identity to understand and discuss in contexts of society norms and self-concept
EX- Jamie is a client who shows confidence and decisiveness are work (masculine traits), while also being nurturing and emotional in relationships (feminine traits). Jamie embraces both types of traits within herself
Assimilation
WHAT- Assimilation is a core concept in Jean Piaget’s cognitive development theory that refers to the process of integrating new information into existing schemas without altering them. Overall beliefs and understanding of the world do not change as a result of the new information, but can improve existing knowledge thanks to new information
WHY- Assimilation helps clinicians understand how people learn and process new information using preexisting knowledge.
EX- A child owns a poodle. They see a dachshund and notice it looks like a poodle. They point at the dachshund and say “That’s a dog!” The parent says “Yes. It’s a dog called a dachshund.” The child’s ‘dog’ schema is now improved and refined – they now know two types of dogs.
Attachment
WHAT- Attachment refers to the emotional bond between a child and a caregiver which forms the foundation for future emotional, social, and cognitive development. Bonds are formed starting at infancy and are based on safety, security, and love needs. Developed by John Bowlby and Mary Ainsworth, the four attachment styles are secure, avoidant, anxious, and disorganized
WHY- It is important for clinicians to understand attachment may foreshadow how early relationships shape adult behavior, emotional regulation, and interpersonal life. Identifying ones attachment style might help target relationship dysfunction and treatment
EX- Claire comes to therapy due to relationship troubles. She says her boyfriend is clingy, very emotional, and needs constant reassurance that she isn’t cheating. After further conversation, the therapist suspects that her boyfriend may have developed an anxious attachment as an infant/child that is manifesting in their relationship.
Child Abuse
WHAT- Intentional act or failure to act by a caregivers that causes harm or risk of harm to a child under 18. The physical, emotional, sexual, and/or neglectful maltreatment of a child. Child abuse increases risk of mental illness, substance use, and insecure attachments.
WHY- Therapists are mandated to report any suspicion of child abuse to the authorities. It is important to be aware of signs to ensure the safety of the child.
EX- A therapist notices bruises on one of their child clients. The child appeared more withdrawn and fearful. After further investigation, the child admits that their parent would hit him after minor mistakes. The therapist reports this to ensure the wellbeing of the child.
Continuity vs non-continuity
WHAT- Two perspectives on developmental processes. Continuity refers to gradual changes where development is smooth and incremental. Non-continuity sees development as occurring in distinct and abrupt stages where they see sudden changes
WHY-Recognizing continuity vs. non-continuity helps therapists understand clients’ developmental struggles and plan interventions accordingly.
EX- A child’s vocabulary expanding gradually would be considered continuity development, but then the child having a sudden leap in reasoning skills would be considered Non-continuity
Critical period
WHAT- A fixed time period in which events and experiences may have long-lasting effects on development. The specific developmental window is usually between birth and 5 years old. Heightened brain elasticity makes this period crucial for language, vision, and social attachment
WHY- Recognizing critical periods and what happens within this timeframe helps clinicians address developmental delays and traumas with timely interventions
EX- Parents bring their adopted 6 year old child to therapy because they are concerned about her development. They say the child struggles at school to socialize, make friends, and regulate their emotions. After further conversation, the therapist learns that the child was grossly neglected and isolated in their first few years of life. The therapist explains that the child was not given opportunities to socialize and faced lots of stress during a critical period of their development
Developmental level
WHAT- An individual’s stage of physical, cognitive, emotional and/or social growth relative to others of the same age and experiences. It is a stage in development where a milestone has been reached. Developmental levels provide a frame of reference for normal progression and growth. Genetic, environment, and personal circumstances cause variations in this progression for each unique individual.
WHY- Developmental level is important as it allows parents/guardians/clinicians to assess if a child is developing normally, or if there are potentially issues that they need to target with treatment
EX- A mother brings her four year old daughter to treatment because she has not begun speaking yet. The doctor was unable to find a physical reason that could be preventing speech. The therapist explains that speech typically should have occurred by this developmental stage and suspects that the lack of speech may be due to a developmental delay, possibly caused by cognitive or neurological problems and discusses next steps to address the issue
Ego centrism
WHAT- Difficulty differentiating one’s own perspective form that of others. Revelant in childhood developement in the pre-operational stage of Piagets cognitive developmental theory (2-7 years old). An egocentric person believes that their perspective is the only one, that others see things from the same point of view, and that others feel, think, and act the same as they do. Egocentrism can manifest in various ways, including difficulty empathizing with others, self-centered thinking patterns, or distorted perceptions of social interactions.
WHY- Important to understand as a clincian and in the context in therapy as egocentrism can persist into adolescence and adulthood, influencing mental health, relationships, and coping strategies. When recognized, aids in case conceptualization, treatment planning, and psychoeducation of the parents/guardians
EX- A mother brings her 5 year old daughter to therapy due to the child’s habit of stealing toys from school. She says her child doesn’t seem to care about the other children’s feelings or understand that concept of stealing. The therapist explains that the child is displaying egocentrism, which is normal for her age. She tells the mother her child is not able to understand the feelings of others because she believes everyone’s thoughts and feelings align with her own.
Genotype vs phenotype
WHAT- Genotype is the inherited genetic makeup of a person that provides a blueprint for potential traits but does not guarantee that they will be expressed. Phenotype is the physical expression of genes that are observable and measurable characteristics like appearance and behaviors.
WHY- Important to understand in counseling because certain disorders can be genetically inherited and can help explain why genetic predispositions may or may not manifest
EX- An individual might have the genotype for tall stature because the genes were passed down, but due to malnutrition as an child, it lead to them beginning shorter and displaying a short phenotype
Genotype environment relationship
WHAT- The interaction between ones genes and the environment shaping development, behavior and traits. The types of these relationships are active (An individual seeks out environments aligned with their genetic predispositions), passive (Parents genetic traits naturally create an environment that suit the child’s genotype), evocative (a child’s genetic traits evoke particular responses from others)
WHY- Aids in understanding how genetic and environmental factors contribute to a clients behavior and problems
EX- A child genetically predisposed to high intelligence may thrive more in an intellectually stimulating setting, enhancing cognitive abilities
Habituation
WHAT- A decrease in responsiveness to a stimulus after repeated exposure. Type of non-associative learning that happens because the subject becomes desensitized to the stimulus
WHY- Important to understand habituation, as many treatment approaches rely on it, such as exposure therapy for phobias to reduce or eliminate client’s response to a feared stimuli
EX- A mother brings her young son to therapy due to her having trouble controlling the child’s behavior. She says in the past, each time the child would misbehave, she would yell and he would stop. However, recently he seems to be unaffected by her yelling. The therapist suspects the child has become habituated to this form of punishment and suggests the mother uses a different and more purposeful method
Hetero vs homogynyous
WHAT- Heterozygous is a type of genotype that includes two different alleles for a trait, one dominant allele and one recessive. Homozygous is a type of genotype that includes only one type of allele, alleles may be both dominant or recessive
WHY- This is important to understand how parents’ genetics are passed down to/influence their children’s genotypes and phenotypes. Helpful in understanding genetic predispositions to mental health disorders and how these interact with environmental factors
EX- A man comes to therapy because he has been extremely distressed due to his suspicion of his wife’s infidelity following the birth of their child. The man says that the child has blonde hair, even though both parents have brown hair. The therapist explains that him and his wife may have heterozygous genes for hair color (dark = dominant, light = recessive), and that the child inherited a homozygous allele of two recessive genes resulting in the child having light hair
Identify achievement
WHAT- It originates from Erik Erikson’s theory of psychosocial development, specifically the Identity vs. Role Confusion stage during adolescence and young adulthood. In James Marcia’s expanded identity theory, occurs when a person undergoes a crisis (explored several different identities) and has made a commitment (investment in an identity) to one. Can be in relation to career, values beliefs, etc.
WHY- Important for clinicians as it includes guiding clients through exploration of values and interests, fostering self-awareness, and supporting conscious commitments. Helps the client achieve clarify and stability in ones self concept
EX- A young adult who tries different career paths, settles on healthcare to help others, and solidifies personal beliefs
Intergenerational trauma/abuse
WHAT- Transmission of trauma or abuse across multiple generations in a family or community. Children of victims of trauma or abuse can experience the unresolved adverse emotional and behavioral reactions to the traumatic event
WHY- Having a complete family history helps to better understand the client. It may help to explain current behavioral or emotional problems and predict future behavior
EX- A grandparent’s severe childhood abuse affects their parenting, leading to neglect or abuse of their own child, who in turn struggles with healthy relationships
Invincibility Fable
WHAT- Refers to the faulty belief held by adolescence that they are indestructible and invulnerable to danger and negative consequences. Egocentric way of thinking believed to be partially caused by incomplete development of the frontal lobe. Belief that nothing bad could happen when engaging in risky acts like reckless driving or unprotected sex due to feeling invincible.
WHY- This is important as it helps to understand how adolescents view the world and themselves, and may help to explain some of the risky behaviors of teenagers
EX- Your 17 year old patient has admitted to frequently driving while drunk. Since she has not been caught by the police or hurt anyone yet, she feels it’s fine. The invincibility fable is guiding her behavior as she expresses “There’s no way I would be the one to get hurt”
Lateralization
WHAT- Specialization of certain cognitive or behavioral functions in one hemisphere of the brain. Each hemisphere is associated with specific processes and skills. Left hemisphere is responsible for language, logic, and analytical thinking. The right hemisphere is responsible for spatial abilities, creativity, and emotions recognition
WHY- Important for understanding brain injury recovery and developmental disorders
EX- Someone who has a stroke in the right hemisphere might struggle to recognize familiar faces, while their language abilities remain intact
Metacognition
WHAT- Conscious awareness and regulation of one’s own thought processes. Awareness of oneself as a thinker and a learner, monitoring, controlling, and evaluating cognitive activities. “Thinking about thinking”
WHY- In therapy, metacognition plays a crucial role in helping clients understand their own mental patterns, challenge maladaptive beliefs, and develop healthier ways of thinking. Important as it allows one to become aware of their strengths and weaknesses in their knowledge and cognitive abilities
EX- Taylor comes to therapy due to her anxiety. Taylor recognizes, by way of metacognition, she has negative thought spirals that maintain her anxiety. They use this awareness to challenge and restructure Taylor’s faulty cognitions and apply coping strategies
Myelination
WHAT- Process by which myelin (a fatty substance) insulates neuron axons to speed up electrical signal transmission. This process is crucial for cognitive, emotional, and motor development and continues from infancy into early adulthood, particularly in the prefrontal cortex, which is responsible for decision-making, impulse control, and emotional regulation.
WHY- In therapy, understanding myelination helps explain developmental delays or damage that can lead to disorders like MS or cerebral palsy. Guides age appropriate inteventions depending on developmental stage
EX- Coordination improvements in a child learning to walk and enhanced problem-solving in adolescence are both due to the myelination process
Parenting types
WHAT- Parenting styles refer to the general strategies and behaviors that parents use to raise their children. Influences children’s social skills, academic performance, and psychological well-being. Authoritarian: strict rules, little warmth. Authoritative: high warmth, reasonable expectations. Permissive: parents are lenient/high warmth, no rules, may result in the child being domineering. Neglectful: low warmth and low control, distant and uninvolved.
WHY- Helps therapists assess the impact of parenting on a child’s mental health and development and guide parents toward more effective parenting techniques. Can be important to understand which parenting style a client experienced as it may provide a better understanding of and explanation for a client’s attachment styles, communication, socialization, and other behavior
EX- 8-year-old boy with behavioral issues at school, including frequent outbursts and defiance.
Parenting Style: The child’s parents exhibit a permissive parenting style, often giving in to demands and avoiding discipline to keep the child happy
Proximodistal development
WHAT- Concept from developmental psychology that refers to the pattern of physical and motor development in which growth and control progress from the center of the body (proximal) outward to the extremities (distal). Most relevant in infantry and early childhood
WHY- Can be an important consideration when working with children, as it helps therapists understand the natural progression of motor skills and body control. Important to guiding interventions for proper motor progression and can aid in identifying developmental delays or disorders early
EX- An infant will first gain control over their torso and upper arms before gaining control over their hands and fingers
Resilience
WHAT- The ability to adapt, recover, and thrive despite adversity. Can refer to the ability to return to baseline functioning following a stressful or traumatic life event. Speaks to the fact that all people experience/interpret and react to trauma differently. Protective factors can be supportive relationships, strong coping skills, and a positive self-concept
WHY- Important for therapists to know the resilience level of their clients. Predicts how well a client will cope with an adverse life event and influences the treatment plans
EX- A child coping with parental divorce who maintains good grades, healthy peer relationships, and emotional stability is displaying resilience
Separation anxiety
WHAT- Anxiety or distress induced by being or thinking about being apart from a primary caregiver. Based in attachment theory, observed primarily in children but can occur at any age. Characterized by fear, crying, other physical/mental signs of distress
WHY- Recognizing and managing separation anxiety guides interventions that enhance coping, attachment, and emotional well-being. If it’s occurring later in life in interpersonal relationships, it can be maladaptive and create issues
EX- A five-year-old who shows intense distress, clinginess, and constant worry when a caregiver departs for a work trip is having separation anxiety
Social referencing
WHAT- Reading emotional cues in others to determine how to act in a certain situation or new situation. It is an important mechanism in human growth, especially in early childhood, where children observe caregivers’ facial expressions, tone of voice, and body language to determine how to respond to unfamiliar or potentially threatening situations
WHY- Important as it helps to children interpret ambiguous situations more accurately and respond appropriately to new experiences. Helps to explain how people (esp kids) learn to interpret and respond to social situations.
EX- An infant sees a stranger and looks at the caregiver’s facial expression; if the caregiver appears calm, the infant is more likely to approach.
Sex linked traits
WHAT- Inherited characteristics carried on the sex chromosomes (X or Y). Because females have two X chromosomes (XX), they are less likely to express X-linked recessive traits if one X carries a normal gene. Males, having only one X chromosome (XY), are more likely to express these traits because they don’t have a second X chromosome to compensate.
WHY- Understanding sex-linked traits helps in genetic counseling, diagnosis, and managing inherited conditions.
EX- Red-green color blindness occurs more often in males because they lack a second X to override the recessive colorblind gene
Stranger anxiety
WHAT- A developmental phenomenon where infants or young children show fear or distress around unfamiliar people. Symptoms include staring, crying, clinging or hiding behind parents. Begins around 6m old, peaks and begins to decline by 1 years old; Stranger anxiety is a normal part of emotional development and is considered a sign of healthy attachment, as the child learns to differentiate between trusted caregivers and unknown individuals but could become problematic if child doesn’t grow out of it
WHY- Therapists reassure parents it’s normal and suggest gradual introductions to ease transitions. It is important in counseling and therapy as an indicator of emotion develop can can aid in diagnosing disorders such as attatchment, autism, or social anxiety.
EX- An 8-month-old, Mia, cries and clings to her mother when a new friend tries to hold her, but calms after seeing the friend’s positive interaction with her mother.
Temperament
WHAT- An individual’s innate personality style and behavioral tendencies. It is largely influenced by genetics and remains relatively stable over time. Key characteristics include emotional reactivity, adaptability, and how one engages with the environment and others. Thomas & Chess Model for temperament has three categories Easy: Adaptable, positive mood, regular habits, Difficult: Intense emotions, irregular routines, less adaptable, Slow-to-warm: Hesitant in new situations but becomes comfortable over time
WHY- Recognizing temperament informs parenting strategies, education, and therapeutic approaches, fostering resilience and emotional growth
EX- A mother tells her therapist she’s worried for her son because he is slow to make new friends. The therapist suggests he may just have a slow-to-warm-up temperament; he is initially shy and hesitant, but becomes more comfortable over time
Teratogens
WHAT- Substances or environmental factors that can harm a developing fetus, causing birth defects, developmental delays, or pregnancy complications. Common Types: Drugs, alcohol, infections, environmental toxins (lead, mercury, radiation), and lifestyle factors.
WHY- Understanding teratogens helps healthcare providers educate pregnant individuals about reducing risks and improving fetal health outcomes
EX- A therapist has a pregnant client that is struggling with substance abuse. The therapist educates the clients about how her substance use is increasing the risks of teratogens, and how teratogens can affect the baby’s development
Zone of proximal development
WHAT- The range of tasks a learner can accomplish with support but not yet independently. Introduced by Lev Vygotsky in his theory of cognitive development emphasizes social interaction and collaboration. Idea that learning is most effective when tasks are slightly beyond the learner’s independent ability but achievable with guidance
WHY- Identifying a learner’s ZPD helps educators and therapists provide appropriate support (scaffolding) and gradually remove it as skills develop, maximizing growth and independence.
EX- A child is working on initiating a conversation with a classmate. Therapist models how to start the conversation since it is outside the child’s comfort zone. Eventually therapist reduces support/modeling and child more independently initiates the conversation
