Counseling and Personality Theories Flashcards
1st and 2nd order cybernetics
WHAT- Terms related to the study of communication and regulating feedback mechanisms within systems. 1st order refers to the counselor observing the system from an external perspective to gain understanding of the family dynamic and how the system operates (as an expert observer). 2nd order refers to the counselor no longer being the expert observer but is now a participant observer/therapist as a part of the family system
WHY- This is important in therapy because instead of just treating symptoms, therapists look at how patterns of interaction sustain problems such as dysfunctional family roles, feedback loops, and communication break downs
EX- In couples therapy, the therapist has moved from 1st order to 2nd order cybernetics, assuming an active role in the relationship, working with the couple to break and redirect positive feedback loops (blaming and defensiveness) so that their system can change in a healthy way
Adlerian Therapy
WHAT – Humanistic and goal-oriented therapy approach developed by Alfred Adler that emphasizes individuals drive for significance, social connection and purpose. This therapy is widely used to help clients explore and change maladaptive behaviors, develop self-awareness, and establish and maintain healthy relationships.
WHY- This type of therapy helps to explain how life and environment are intertwined with pathology. This therapy emphasizes the belief that mental health is tied to one’s ability to connect with others.
EX- Kacie is a client seeking treatment due to her depression. She says she has been feeling very depressed and as a result has been isolating herself. A therapist following using Adlerian therapy may work with Kacie to find ways she can connect with others and foster relationships.
Automatic thoughts
WHAT- Spontaneous, often negative thoughts, that seem plausible and are often in response to a stimulus or situation. Often involve irrational and distorted thinking tied into deeper core beliefs. These contribute to emotional responses such as anxiety and depression. The concept is central to cognitive-behavioral therapy (CBT), which aims to help individuals recognize and challenge these thoughts to improve their mental health.
WHY - Automatic thoughts can be maladaptive and persistent therefore it is important that these need to be challenged. In therapy, a therapist can help a client challenge these thoughts with more realistic alternatives. These cognitive distortions can be a maintaining factor in ones anxiety, depression, and overall wellbeing
EX- Someone in a social setting might think “they don’t like me” because someone didn’t smile back at them
Behavioral activation
WHAT - Therapeutic approach primarily to treat depression. It focuses on helping individuals reengage in meaningful and rewarding activities which can improve mood. Addresses low positive reinforcement, avoidance and isolation.
WHY - BAT is important because it allows a way for client to gradually improve their quality of life and decrease avoidance and isolation behaviors
EX - Sarah, a client with depression, she used to love to paint and would do it almost daily. The therapist may suggest that sarah begins drawing in a sketchbook after work each day. Sarah has implemented this for weeks and reports that she now looks forward to coming home from work knowing that she has a fun activity to look forward to.
Behavioral Therapy
WHAT-Behavioral therapy was developed in response to psychoanalysis based on theorist Pavlov, Skinner, and Watson. It is present focused and is used to decrease maladaptive behaviors and increase adaptive ones using learning and conditioning theories. It is used for many disorders such as anxiety, depression, phobias, among others
WHY - Behavioral therapy can be essential for clients to become aware and provide insights into their behavioral patterns that are maintaining their poor mental health problems. They can use behavioral techniques to then learn and promote positive change
EX - A teacher reinforces positive behaviors in case by giving students who raise their hand a sticker instead of giving attention when they shout out to decrease the behavior of them calling out of turn
Big five personality model/traits
WHAT – Model that beliefs that personality can be broken down into 5 broad trait components: Openness, Conscientiousness, Extroversion, Agreeableness, and Neuroticism (OCEAN). These traits are biologically based and are relatively stable in individuals over time. Each trait exists on a spectrum offering insight into how traits influence behaviors, relationships, and coping mechanisms.
WHY- Understanding this model and personality traits is important for clinicians because it can provide a foundation and reliable framework for assessment and determining effective treatments that fit the unique client
EX- Peter is telling his therapist that he’s having a lot of anxiety about choosing a college major. The counselor administers a personality inventory and finds Peter has high levels of neuroticism. After further assessment, Peter shows signs of OCD. His big five personality traits correlate with his psychological symptoms.
Client centered/person centered theory/therapy
WHAT- Theory developed by Carl Rogers that is an optimistic, humanistic, and existential approach to therapy. Based on the belief that humans have a natural tendency toward growth and change and negative environmental influences disrupt that tendency. In Person-centered therapy, the therapist approaches the client with warmth, empathy, and genuineness, promoting client’s clarity and self-discovery while being nondirective.
WHY- Important in counseling because it emphasizes client autonomy and that they possess the inner resources of healing, shifting the focus to the individual’s experience rather than the therapist’s expertise
EX- Shelby is a person-centered therapists. In her sessions, she does not offer advice or direct clients to solutions. Instead, she lets the client lead, focuses on displaying empathy and creating an environment that encourages clients to be their authentic self.
Cognitive therapy
WHAT - Therapy approach coined by Beck and Ellis that focuses on how thoughts, beliefs, and attitudes contribute to psychological distress. The main idea of this therapy is that distorted and negative thinking patterns about self, others, and the world maintain maladaptive behavior and emotions
WHY - CT is important because it provides clients with skills to challenge and modify negative thought patterns which leads to cognitive flexibility, emotional resiliency and lasting change
EX - A client comes to therapy with anxiety about starting a new job. She claims her coworkers don’t like her because they laugh every time she walks by their desks, meaning they must be making fun of her. The therapist will identify this belief and work with the client to find evidence to disprove it and come up with more realistic alternatives
Common factors in Psychotherapy
WHAT – Based on Michael Lambert’s 4 factor model in therapy, the common factors are what is believed to be the essential reasons psychotherapy works and change happens.
*Extra-therapeutic factors/Client factors (40%) client assets, motivation, support systems
*Therapeutic relationship (30%) - rapport, using unconditional positive regard, empathy
*Expectancy (15%) - Hope for positive outcomes
*Techniques (15%) - treatments for specific disorders including accurate identification of and therapist skills to treat
WHY- They are important because the presence or absence of these factors can determine the outcome of treatment. They are applicable across populations and therapeutic modalities
EX: Mark, a former armed forces member who has gained 50+ lbs since his medical discharge, is anxious and isolating himself, causing him to worry about his mental state. Mark presents to therapy with the hope of creating healthy habits that will impact his mindset and mood. Mark knows he is capable of hard work and commitment from his time in the military, and the tolerance and respect shown toward him by his therapist (also former military) encourages him to stay committed to his goals. Given these factors, Mark is likely to have positive outcomes from therapy.
Conditional vs unconditional positive regard
WHAT- Terms developed by Carl Rogers to describe whether support and acceptance are given with or without conditions. Conditional positive regard refers to offering acceptance or approval based on actions or behaviors meeting certain conditions or aligning with one’s personal standard. Unconditional positive regard refers to accepting and valuing someone completely, regardless of their actions or behaviors
WHY- Important to know because it is believed that unconditional positive regard is more valuable and influential in therapy to ensure a client feels values for who they are and not what they do or achieve
EX- A therapist is treating a client, Jack, who is expressing guilt for cheating on his girlfriend. Even if adultery is against the therapist’s personal beliefs/standards, she will still treat Jack with care, respect, and empathy.
Conditions of worth
WHAT- Term developed by Carl Rogers to describe standards people believe they must meet in order to be acceptable and worth of love. Can be placed on an individual by society, family or friends where they believe love and respect is conditional. Usually developed in childhood based on parents’ approval or other life experiences.
WHY- Important to be aware of a client’s conditions of worth as they may be relying on validation and behaving incongruently with their values that can lead to distress and psychopathy
EX- Alex is an only child with parents who divorced when she was young. Never wanting to upset her usually stressed-out mother, Alex learned to be agreeable and pleasant no matter how she was really feeling inside. Now, regardless of having a wide range of friends, Alex struggles with self-worth and believes that it is only because she is so agreeable that she has any friends at all
Countertransference
WHAT – Countertransference is when the counselor unconsciously redirects feelings, or is triggered by something the client has said, has done, or the way they present themselves.
WHY- Important to recognize as a clinician is countertransference is not necessarily good or bad but being aware it when it occurs ensures not acting inappropriately toward a client.
EX- Therapist finds themselves distracted and annoyed by their client who reminds them of their own mother. Therapist grew up viewing their mother as a martyr who used the church as an excuse to never live a joy filled life. Therapist finds herself growing frustrated but becomes aware they are experiencing countertransference
Cultural self-awareness
WHAT- Cultural self-awareness refers to a therapist’s understanding of their own cultural background, beliefs, values, biases, and how these factors might influence their interactions with clients from different cultural backgrounds. Case conceptualization involves understanding a client’s presenting problems through their cultural, social, and personal context
WHY- Cultural self-awareness is crucial for both evidence-based practice and case conceptualization in therapy because it ensures that therapists take a culturally competent approach to treatment. By being aware of their own cultural background and biases, therapists can more effectively apply research and interventions that are relevant to clients from diverse cultural contexts
EX - In some cultures, somatic complaints (e.g., headaches, fatigue) may be a common way to express emotional distress. A therapist without cultural self-awareness might miss this connection and overlook the client’s underlying emotional issues
Defense mechanisms
WHAT- Part of Freud’s psychoanalytic theory, defense mechanisms are unconscious psychological strategies to cope with unpleasant feelings or stress. They often operate to protect the individual’s self-esteem and manage internal conflicts. The four characteristics are automatic, unconscious, ward off unacceptable impulses and distort reality. Can be problematic when defense mechanisms leas to pathology representing as denial, repression, deflection, among others.
WHY- Recognizing when a client is using defense mechanisms can benefit the therapeutic process by providing insight into their view of the world. Helping the client become aware of and modify them can promote wellbeing
EX- Kevin is telling his therapist that he always starts a fight with his wife after a bad day at work. The therapist asks if it’s possible Kevin is displacing his feelings about work onto his wife.
Externalizing conversations
WHAT- Used in narrative therapy that reframes internal problems to be an external entity. Allows the client to explore the influence of the problem by seeing themselves separate from the problem allowing them to take change and gain power over the issue.
WHY- Important to help clients feel a sense of control over their life. It can reduce shame for clients who may blame themselves for the problem they experience
EX- Therapist: “It sounds like anger has been showing up a lot in your life lately. If anger were a separate thing from you, how would you describe it?”
Client: “It’s like a fire inside me. It just flares up, and I can’t control it. Its like I’m surrounded by its hot flame and just want to throw it at people.”
Fixation
WHAT- Originates from Sigmund Freud’s psychosexual theory and is used in psychoanalytic theory to describe when individuals get stuck at a certain stage of development due to unresolved conflict.This can lead to behavioral and emotional difficulties later in life. In counseling can be especially relevant for populations dealing with childhood trauma, attachment issues and addictions.
WHY- Important for clinicians to address because fixation can limit a person’s ability to resolve tasks in later stages. Fixation be used to understand maladaptive behaviors, emotional struggles, and personality traits that may stem from unresolved developmental issues
EX- A client comes to therapy with an addiction to vaping. According to Freud, this client was either over-gratified or withholding during the oral stage
Gemeinschaftsgefuhl or social interest
WHAT- Belief from Adlerian therapy that maintaining healthy social relationships is the goal of therapy and leads to a fulfilling and purpose driven life. Social interest is relevant in populations dealing with social isolation, trauma, or self-esteem issues
WHY- Social interest is important to creating community engagement, social activity, and emotional resilience. It encourages psychosocial healing by including a client’s social support in the therapeutic process.
EX- A client comes to treatment for her depression. According to Adlerian therapy, creating relationships with others will improve their well being
Genogram
WHAT- A visual representation of a family tree used in therapy to explore family dynamics, relationships, and psychological patterns across generations. It shows biological and environmental aspects that play a role in psychopathology. Genograms are widely used in family therapy, counseling, psychology, and social work to identify intergenerational influences on an individual’s mental health, relationships, and behaviors
WHY- Important for helping clients gain insights by creating a visual to better see and understand family influences negative cycles
EX- At a recovery center, the therapist has a client fill out a genogram. While doing so, the client realizes a history of addiction as well as depression in her family. By bringing awareness to this fact, it provides the client with hope knowing that certain aspects of her dependency and mental health may be hereditary.
Narrative therapy
WHAT- Therapy used to empower clients to take control of their lives by helping them reshape, rewrite, and reinterpret their personal stories to externalize the problem. They can separate themselves from internalized oppression and break free of harmful self-belief. Therapist role is using questioning and collaboration to empower the client. Effective in treating trauma, depression, etc.
WHY- Allows clients to have a sense of control to rewrite their life with more desirable themes
EX- A recently divorced father feels like a failure because he couldn’t make his wife happy and save his marriage. The therapist helps him build an alternative story that during a very difficult time in his life, he worked to repair his marriage and even while that did not succeed, he is showing resilience and has maintained being a wonderful father and friend throughout this difficult time
Person-situation debate
WHAT- A common debate between personality theorist as to whether personalities are consistent across situations, or does behavior vary according to the situation. Helps psychologists understand why people behave consistently in some situations but change in others. Therapists can tailor treatments by considering both personal traits and environmental influences.
WHY- Knowledge of this debate allows the clinician to understand that a client’s traits and environment are important to consider during assessment and conceptualization.
EX- Marc is generally introverted; however he behaves differently in a professional setting taking on a strong, almost dominate leadership role, due to the influence of the situation. In this case, the situation demands confidence, and thus the person behaves in a way that fits the context, even if their typical behavior is more reserved.
Potentially harmful treatments
WHAT- Treatments that can be harmful or ineffective when used inappropriately or without sufficient evidence of success. Could exacerbate symptoms, harm the therapeutic relationship, and cause long-term psychological or emotional damage. These treatments may be based on outdated, unproven, or unethical practices
WHY – It is crucial for therapist to avoid PHT because they lack empirical evidence and breach ethical guidelines. Therapist should stay up to date on current PHT to avoid harming their clients
EX - A homosexual teen is treated with conversion therapy and receives mild electric shocks, in hopes of creating an aversion to his same-sex attraction
Psychodynamic theory
WHAT- Descendent from Freud’s psychoanalytic theory, the goal is to bring the unconscious impulses causing problems in a patient’s life to the surface. Focuses on childhood and developmental stages. The therapist serves as the guide and facilitator and can use techniques such as free associations and dream analysis.
WHY- While it can be criticized for being too focused on childhood experiences, and lacking empirical evidence, psychodynamic theory is important to the idea that mental issues often have deep, underlying causes. This aims to help client gain self-awareness and create change in maladaptive behavior patterns.
EX - During therapy, a man recalls misconduct by a Priest at his church and associates that time to when he started disliking school and displaying anti-social behaviors. Therapist works to create a safe space for the client to explore these feelings of distrust and anger as he brings unconscious material into awareness of how these experiences created patterns of behavior that still impact him today.
Psychoeducation
WHAT- Psychoeducation is the process of educating clients, families, or groups about psychological conditions, mental health, and coping strategies to improve self-awareness and treatment outcomes. It combines elements of education and therapy, helping individuals understand their emotions, behaviors, and mental health conditions. Psychoeducation is widely used in Cognitive-Behavioral Therapy (CBT), Dialectical Behavior Therapy (DBT), family therapy, and trauma-informed care. It is particularly effective for individuals with anxiety, depression, PTSD, bipolar disorder, schizophrenia, and chronic stress
WHY- This is important for forming a collaborative atmosphere and lays the foundation for a strong therapeutic alliance. Important for helping individuals understand their mental health conditions, take an active role in managing them, and reduces misconceptions
EX- Colleen presents to therapy for generalized anxiety experiencing constant worry about her health and friendships. Therapist teaches Colleen that anxiety can serve a purpose in protect her but when left unfiltered may lead to fixating thoughts and catastrophizing situations
Rational-Emotive Behavior Therapy
WHAT – A type of cognitive behavioral therapy developed by Ellis that states that distress is not caused by events themselves but by one’s beliefs and judgements about the events. The goal is to challenge irrational beliefs that lead to emotional distress and maladaptive behaviors and replace them with more rational alternatives. It promotes unconditional self-acceptance rather than basing self-worth on achievements or approval. Often uses the ABC model to identify and restructure thoughts.
WHY – REBT is important to allowing clients to recognize negative thought patterns and teaches them how to replace them with healthier and more productive beliefs.
EX - Client: Sarah, a college student, experiences extreme anxiety over exams.
ABC Model Analysis:
A (Activating Event): Sarah gets a low grade on a test.
B (Belief): “I’m a total failure, and I’ll never be successful.”
C (Consequence): Sarah feels worthless, anxious, and unmotivated to study further.
Schema or core belief
WHAT- Deeply held cognitive framework that shapes how individuals interpret themselves, others and the world. Often developed in childhood, it is the deepest and most ingrained level of cognition that influences assumptions and automatic thoughts. These endure despite the reality of the situation and can maintain psychopathology.
WHY – Identifying schemas allows a therapist to understand a client’s outlook on many aspects of their life. It is essential to identify and restructure negative schemas into more adaptive thinking as it can be influencing and maintaining psychopathology. Can be an essential aspect in case conceptualization to identify the core belief that can be targeted with treatment
EX - A therapist has uncovered a client has a core belief that they’re unlovable. The therapist explains how this core belief is likely playing a part in her difficulty with maintaining relationships, poor self-esteem, and shame
Self-actualization
WHAT- Term coined by Maslow who created the hierarchy of needs where self-actualization is the peak/goal. It refers to when a person has realized and fulfilled their potential and are living according to their best self. This is an ongoing process to encourage individuals to develop their abilities and fully appreciate life
WHY – Self-actualization is important in therapy because it fosters personal growth, emotional wellbeing, and authenticity
EX - Client explains that as she approaches her 50s, she no longer feels the need to compare herself to others or compete for attention and praise. She feels a sense of pride and is content with her place in the world. She feels a sense of purpose, life satisfaction and an alignment with her authentic self
Self-concept
WHAT – Self-concept is an organized set of perceptions about oneself and relationships. Basis of Person-centered therapy, self-concept is explored to understand how a person views themselves and how these perceptions influence emotions, behaviors, and relationships. Useful with adolescents, individuals with low self-esteem, and trauma survivors
WHY – Self-concept is central to therapy because it reflects how an individual thinks and behaves. Important because therapy can help a client reshape their negative self-concept by addressing negative self-beliefs and fostering personal growth.
EX - Your client is a 22-year-old college student struggling with low self-esteem and identity confusion. She frequently compares herself to others, believing she is not smart or capable enough, which leads to self-doubt, anxiety, and social withdrawal. Together you explore what may have contributed to her self-view and work to replace these negative beliefs with more balanced, self-compassionate thoughts
Self-efficacy
WHAT - Self-efficacy refers to a person’s belief in their ability to successfully perform tasks, overcome challenges, and achieve their goals. In therapy, fostering self-efficacy helps clients feel more capable of managing their emotions, behaviors, and life circumstances. The concept, introduced by Albert Bandura, is a key component of cognitive-behavioral therapy (CBT) and other therapeutic approaches.
WHY - Strengthening self-efficacy is important and is the goal of several treatments because high SE builds confidence, promotes resilience, and enhances motivation which upholds long-lasting well-being
EX - A client struggling with social anxiety avoids speaking in group settings due to fear of judgment. By guiding the client to recall past successes and set small, achievable goals, the therapist helps build their self-efficacy, reinforcing the belief that they can improve their social confidence
Self-monitoring
WHAT - CBT technique that involves tracking and recording ones own thoughts, behaviors, and moods. Populations that benefit from self-monitoring include those with obsessive-compulsive disorder (OCD), eating disorders, and impulse-control issues
WHY - Self monitoring is essential to promoting self-awareness and identifying patterns, triggers, and progress. Can be useful to monitor changes in symptoms to assess if they are improving of what has been causes any worsening symptoms. Encourages ownership of behaviors and supports more personalized change options
EX - A client is using self-monitoring techniques by making a log of daily activities and tracking how they are feeling throughout the day
Solution-focused Brief Therapy
WHAT – Goal oriented and future focused therapy approach where both the therapy and the implementation of solutions occur over a brief, limited time. Focuses on identifying and building solutions rather than analyzing the problems
WHY – It is an important therapy option for people who need help achieving short term goals without delving into deep treatment. It empowers clients by promoting rapid problem solving and provides a sense of hope instead of dwelling in the causes of issues
EX - A client comes into therapy following a bad breakup. Them and the therapist set goals of how they want to feel at the end of therapy. SFBT is used by the therapist to guide the client towards their goals/create positive change
Systems theory
WHAT- Framework used to understand how individuals’ function within interconnected relationships and environments. Emphasizes that a person’s thought, emotions, and behaviors are influenced by their social systems such as family, work, or community. Used in family therapy, the therapist assesses the range of interactions between all family members to understand what is maintaining the problems within the family rather than focusing on the responsibility of a single member
WHY- Systems theory is important because it helps therapist view clients holistically, considering external; influences rather than just individual pathology
EX - A family comes to counseling. While dad’s drinking is upsetting, rather than focusing on dad’s drinking, the therapist focuses all relationships patterns. His critical, passive-aggressive wife and children who ignore his advice and treat him like an old man which makes him want to disconnect and drink.
Trait
WHAT- A enduring, stable personality characteristic. Traits influence an individual’s thoughts, emotions, and behaviors across a range of situations. Most commonly involves the 5 traits in the Big 5 personality model.
WHY – Understanding traits is important in mental health because they influence how individuals cope with stress, relate to others, and respond to therapy. Can help counselors tailor interventions for more personalized care.
EX- A mother brings her twins into therapy because one is outgoing and social and the other is shy. The mother expresses concern mainly for the shy child. The therapist explains that each person has a different combination of traits, even twins, explaining that one twin has a higher degree of extraversion than the other twin
Triangulation
WHAT- Originates from family systems theory, concept that occurs when a 3rd party is drawn into conflict between two people to reduce tension or shift dynamics. Commonly seen in family therapy and relationship counseling, where one person involves another to mediate, take sides, or deflect.
WHY- It is important in therapy to encourage direct communication and boundary setting to reduce dependency on third parties to improve relational functioning
EX - Teenage child continuously inserts herself into perceived conflicts between her father and mother. Rather than allowing the adults to work through their conversation and resolve any conflict, the daughter jumps in with her own interpretation of events to save and stand up for a parents she feels is being treated unjustly
Warm, Empathy, Genuineness (WEG)
WHAT- Stands for warmth, empathy, and genuineness, which are non-negotiable therapeutic conditions coined by Carl Rogers. Warmth = unconditional positive regard, caring, and accepting, Empathy = understanding the clients experiences and perspective, Genuineness = therapist being honest and authentic
WHY- Important skills for therapist to consistently use to allow the client to feel heard, respected, and understood
EX- During the session, a therapist may convey warmth by creating a safe and nonjudgmental space for the client to share. They may convey empathy by actively listening and using reflections to better understand the client. The therapist shows genuineness by using language understood by the client and acting as an equal collaborator, rather than a superior
