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PSYC101 > Human Development > Flashcards

Human Development Flashcards

1
Q

Developmental Psychology

A
  • Examines changes in physical, emotional, personality, cognitive, moral and social development across the lifespan
  • change and continuity
  • changes predictable and age related
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2
Q

Prenatal Development

A
  • Development before birth
  • Begins with conception
  • -> union of sperm and egg creates zygote
  • -> single celled organism from which all other cells develop
  • prenatal period comprised of 3 stages:
  • -> Germinal (first 2 weeks)
  • -> Embryonic (2 weeks to 2 months)
  • -> Fetal (2 months to birth)
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3
Q

Germinal Stage (first 2 weeks)

A
  • Formation of zygote
  • Rapid cell division
  • Implantation of cell mass into uterine wall
  • -> duration: 1 week
  • -> Many zygotes rejected
  • Formation of placenta
  • -> exchange system between mother and fetus
    • -> oxygen and nutrients
    • -> bodily waste
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4
Q

Embryonic Stage (2 weeks to 2 months)

A
  • Embryo
  • specialised cell division
  • –> formation of physiological structures
  • -> heart, spine, brain
  • -> sensitive period of time (environmental impacts harmful, miscarriage)
  • Beginning to look human
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5
Q

Fetal stage (2 months to birth)

A
  • Fetus
  • Rapid growth
  • -> formation of muscle and bone (capable of physical movement)
  • -> organs function
  • -> fat for insulation
  • -> brain specialisation
  • Threshold of viability (23 to 26 weeks)
  • -> age at which baby can survive premature birth
  • -> increased chances of developmental problems
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6
Q

Teratogens

A
  • Environmental agents that can harm the developing organism
  • sensitive periods
  • types of teratogens
  • -> prescription and recreational drugs
  • -> viruses and parasites
  • -> environmental toxins
  • -> malnutrition
  • -> stress
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7
Q

Recreational drugs

Heroin and Methadone

A
  • Heroin and methadone
  • -> premature birth, low birth weight, physical defects, respiratory distress
  • Born addicted
  • -> feverish, irritable, distinct cry, sleeping difficulties
  • First year
  • -> less attentive
  • -> slow motor development
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8
Q

RD caffeine

A 
> 3 cups per day 
- low birth weight, miscarriage 
- withdrawal symptoms
==> irritability 
--> vomiting
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9
Q

RD tobacco

A
  • premature birth and low birth weight

- passive smoking

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10
Q

RD alcohol

A
  • Fetal alcohol syndrome (FAS)
  • -> slow physical growth
  • -> brain injury (small head, impairment in at least 3 areas of functioning)
  • -> Facial abnormalities (short eyelid openings, thin upper lip, smooth or flattened philtrum ((indentation on upper lip)
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11
Q

Stress (anxiety)

A

Anxiety:

  • miscarriage
  • premature birth
  • low birth weight
  • respiratory and digestive illnesses
  • sleep disturbances
  • irritability
  • disruptions to stress response
  • -> heightens stress reactivity in later life
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12
Q

Motor Development

A
  • development of muscular coordination required for physical activities
  • Gross motor development
  • -> move through environment (crawling, walking)
  • Fine motor development
  • -> interact with environment
  • -> smaller movements (reaching, grasping)
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13
Q

General Principles (motor development)

A

Cephalocaudal trend
- head to foot

Proximodistal trend
- torso to extremities

  • progress in motor development
  • -> Genetics (developmental norms)
  • -> learning and experience (cultural variations)
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14
Q

Emotional Development

A

Temperament

  • Typical mood, activity level, and emotional reaction
  • Individual differences
  • -> (Thomas & Chess 1977)

Attachment

  • Close emotional ties to caregiver
  • gradual development

Separation Anxiety

  • Emotional distress displayed by infant when separated from caregiver
  • -> first sign 6-8 months
  • -> Peaks 14 to 18 months and then declines
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15
Q

Thomas and Chess (1977)

A
  • longitudinal study
  • 3 temperament styles
    –> easy child (40%)
    (happy, regular routines, adapts to change, not easily upset)

–> slow to warm up child (15%)
(less happy, some irregularities in routines, slow to adapt to change)

–> difficult child (10%)
(miserable, irregular routines, resistant to change, irritable)

  • Mixed (35%)
  • Predictive ability
  • Stability
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16
Q

Theories of attachment

A

Behaviourist (caregiver in conditioned reinforcer)

Harlow’s monkey studies (1958, 1959)
- Controlled environment
- Two substitute mothers (terrycloth, wire)
–> Mother providing food manipulated between subjects
(preference for terrycloth mother regardless of feeding conditions)

  • introduce frightening stimulus
  • -> monkeys run to terrycloth mother regardless of feeding condition

-contact comfort plays an important role in attachment

Ainsworth (1979)

  • Quality of attachment
  • Strange situation
  • -> Stranger introduced
  • -> Infants exposed to episodes of separation and reunion with caregiver
  • -> Emotional reactions observed
  • > 3 types of attachment
    1. secure
  • caregiver used as a secure base from which to explore the environment
  • Upset when caregiver leaves, approaches caregiver upon return, calmed immediately
  1. Insecure
    > anxious- ambivalent (resistant)
    - Distressed when caregiver leaves, not easily comforted upon return
    >Avoidant
    - not distressed when caregiver leaves, seeks little contact upon return
  2. Disorganised disorientated (main and solomom)
    - confusion over approach or avoidance of caregiver
17
Q

Theories of attachment (#2)

A

Factors affecting attachment style

  • caregivers sensitivity
  • infants temperament

Consequences of attachment style

  • R/ships
  • emotional reaction
  • cognitive development

Cultural variation
- secure attachment predominant cross- culturally

18
Q

Personality development

A

Erikson’s Stage Theory (1963)
- Childhood events shape adult personality
- Personality evolves over lifespan
- 8 stages
Each stage presents a psychosocial crisis
Positive versus negative outcome

Stage 1: Trust vs. Mistrust
Birth – 1 year
Are basic needs met?
Yes
- Develop trusting attitude toward world
Optimistic personality
No
- Develop mistrusting attitude toward world
Pessimistic personality

Stage 2: Autonomy vs. Shame and Doubt
2 - 3 years of age
Can I do things myself or am I reliant on others?
Toilet training, feeding, dressing, bathing

Stage 3: Initiative vs. Guilt
3 – 6 years of age
Initiate activities and enjoy accomplishments
Am I good or am I bad?
Acquire direction and purpose

Stage 4: Industry vs. Inferiority
6 – 12 years of age
Am I competent or am I worthless?
Develop curiosity and eager to learn

19
Q

Cognitive Development

A
  • Changes in a child’s pattern of thinking including reasoning, remembering and problem solving

Piaget’s Stage Theory
4 stages
Characterised by different thought processes
Sensorimotor period (birth – 2 years)
Preoperational period (2 – 7 years)
Concrete operational period (7 – 11 years)
Formal operational period (11years – adulthood)

20
Q

Piaget’s stage theory

stage 1

A 
Sensorimotor period (birth – 2 years)
Coordination of sensory input and motor actions
Simple reflexes
Intentional actions
Object permanence
Realisation that objects continue to exist even when they are no longer visible
First signs 4 – 8 months
Mastery 18 months
21
Q

Piaget’s stage theory

stage 2

A 
Preoperational period (2 – 7 years)
Marked by what child cannot do
Conservation
-- Physical quantities remain the same regardless of changes in shape or appearance
Beaker test
-- Not yet mastered
Why?

Flaws in thinking
Complementarity
Focus attention on one feature of a problem only
E.g., focus on height, fail to acknowledge width

Reversibility
Failure to envision reversing an action

22
Q

Piaget’s stage theory

stage 3

A

Concrete operational period (7 – 11 years)

  • Development of mental operations for concrete objects and actual events (Count, add, subtract, sort)
  • Master reversibility
  • Many ways to look at a problem
23
Q

Piaget’s stage theory

stage 4

A

Formal operational period (11 years – adulthood)
Abstract thinking
- Apply mental operations to hypothetical events
If stick A is shorter than stick C, and stick B is longer than stick C, is stick B longer than stick A?

Systematic approach to problem solving (Pendulum problem)

Degree of thinking changes rather than nature of thinking

24
Q

Limitation of Piaget’s stage theory

A
  • empirical evidence suggesting object permanence acquired earlier than suggested by piaget
  • thought processes of children are often a mixture of stages
  • fails to acknowledge environmental factors
25
Q

Cognitive Development

Vygotsky’s Sociocultural Theory

A
  • Cognitive development a product of social interaction
  • language important
  • -> development of cognitive skills through dialogue with others
26
Q

Cognitive Development

Kohlberg’s stage theory

A
  • Development of moral reasoning
  • Heinz dilemma
    What actor ought to do and why?
    > 3 levels
    Preconventional, Conventional, Postconventional
    2 sub levels each
  • Marked differences in thinking about right and wrong

Preconventional level
- reasoning driven by external authorities
Stage 1: punishment orientation
–> acts are wrong if they are punished

stage 2: naive reward orientation
–> acts are right if they are rewarded
(self- interested)

Conventional level
Stage 3: Good boy/ good girl orientation
–> right and wrong determined by close others approval/ disapproval

Stage 4: Authority orientation

  • -> rules necessary to maintain social order (understand function of punishment in society)
  • -> rigid thinking

Postconventional level
Stage 5: Social contract orientation
–> greater flexibility in thinking about societal rules (acknowledge some people may break societal rules if personal ethics conflict)

Stage 6: Individual principles and conscience orientation

  • develop personal code of ethics
  • few people reach this stage
27
Q

Adolescence

A
  • Transitional period between childhood and adulthood

- 13 to 22

28
Q

Physiological development

growth spurt

A
  • rapid growth in height and weight
  • hormonal changes
  • sex differences in age of onset:
  • -> 10 years for females
  • -> 12 years for males
  • proximodistal trend reversed
  • -> feet- legs- torso
  • -> longer legs account for height gain
  • cross cultural differences ``
29
Q

Physiological development

A

Both sexes gain muscle
–> 150% greater in males

Gross motor development

  • Improved endurance, strength, and speed
  • Gender differences
  • -> Running speed
  • -> Long jump
  • -> Throwing distance
  • -> Males outperform females

Sexual maturation

  • Secondary sex characteristics
  • -> Distinguish sexes but not essential for reproduction

Males
Voice deepens, facial hair, pubic hair, skeletal and muscle growth in upper torso

Females
Breast development, pubic hair, pelvic bones widen and increased fat deposits in hip area

Pubescence

  • 2 years
  • Unable to reproduce

Puberty
- Sexual functions reach maturity

Primary sex characteristics
- Structures necessary for reproduction develop fully
- Beginning of adolescence
--> Males
Penis, scrotum, testes
Spermarche
First occurrence of ejaculation (13 – 14 years)
Maturation complete 18 years
--> Females
Ovaries, uterus, vagina
Menarche
First occurrence of menstruation (12 – 13 years)
Maturation complete 16 years

–> Generational differences in age of onset
Developed countries only
- Nutrition
- Immunisation

Individual differences in age of onset of puberty
- 10 – 15 years females
- 11 – 16 years males
Early vs. late maturation

Sex differences

  • Early females and early males
  • -> Emotional distress, drug and alcohol use, aggression, delinquency
  • Early females
    Sexual risk-taking and eating disorders
  • Late males
    Low self-esteem
30
Q

Neural Development

A
  • White matter increases

grey matter decreases
- synaptic pruning
(elimination of less active synapses)
- most pronounced in prefrontal cortex
- executive functioning (eg. planning, problem solving, response inhibition, emotion regulation)
- Maturation complete in mid 20’s (possible explanation for increased risk taking

31
Q

Adolescent risk taking

A

other factors to consider

  • peer influence
  • inflated sense of importance (reduced perception of vulnerability)
32
Q

Personality development

Erikson stage theory (5 to 8)

A 
Erikson’s Stage Theory
Stage 1: Trust vs. Mistrust
Stage 2: Autonomy vs. Shame and Doubt
Stage 3: Initiative vs. Guilt
Stage 4: Industry vs. Inferiority

Stage 5: Identity vs. Confusion

  • Adolescence
  • Who am I and where am I going?
  • -> Stable self-image and set of values
  • Exploration and commitment
  • Influenced by previous stages
  • Identity formation can extend into adulthood

Stage 6: Intimacy vs. Isolation

  • Early adulthood
  • Should I share my life with another or live alone?
  • Positive outcome
  • -> Promotes empathy and openness
  • Negative outcome
  • -> Hesitancy to form close relationships

Stage 7: Generativity vs. Self-absorption

  • Middle adulthood
  • Will I produce something of real value?
  • Positive outcome
  • -> Concern for the welfare of future generations
  • -> Unselfish guidance to younger individuals
  • -> Concern with one’s legacy
  • Negative outcome
  • -> Concerned with own comfort

Stage 8: Integrity vs. Despair

  • Late adulthood
  • Have I lived a full life?
  • Positive outcome
  • -> Satisfied with life, feels life was meaningful
  • Negative outcome
  • -> Feels life was un- meaningful, resentful and bitter, fears death
33
Q

Personality development in adulthood

A

Stability

  • Roberts and DelVecchio (2000)
  • -> reviewed 150 studies
  • -> personality in early adulthood predicts personality in late adulthood

Change

  • Big 5 personality traits
  • -> extraversion, neuroticism, and openness to experience decreases with age
  • -> agreeableness and conscientiousness increase with age
  • Self- esteem peaks at 60 years then gradually declines
34
Q

Social changes (adulthood)

A

Transitions in family life
- not universal

Marriage
- postponing until late 20’s or early 30’s

Parenthood

  • Increase in the number of individuals choosing to remain childless
  • first child
  • -> disruption of routines
  • -> negatives impacts greater for mother (especially if discrepancy between father’s expected contribution to childcare and actual contribution)
  • -> decreased marital satisfaction (inverse relationship with number of children.)

Empty nest

  • Period when all children have left home
  • previously seen as a difficult time especially for mothers
  • -> familiar with maternal role only
  • -> additional roles outside home now make adjustment easier
  • Increased marital satisfaction
  • -> increased enjoyment of time spent with husband
35
Q

Physiological changes (adulthood)

A

Appearance

  • hair thins and become grey
  • receding hairline and baldness in males
  • body fat increases
  • muscle tissue decreases
  • -> potential consequence: low self esteem

Sensory loss

  • Vision
  • -> far sightedness, difficulty seeing in low light conditions, sensitivity to colour and contrast reduced
  • Hearing
  • -> noticeable after age 50
  • -> impacts speech perception
  • -> greater in men than women
  • -> greater for high frequency sounds than low- frequency sounds

Hormonal functioning in women
- menopause (50yrs)

36
Q

Neural Changes

A
  • Gradual decline in brain tissue and brain weight after age 60
  • -> decrease in active neurons
  • -> shrinkage of still active neurons
  • -> normal part of ageing (not related to dementia)
37
Q

Cognitive Changes (adulthood)

A

Intelligence

  • Stable through adulthood
  • group averages suggest small decline after age 60

-Types of intelligence:
==> fluid intelligence: reasoning ability, memory capacity, speed of information processing

==> crystallised intelligence:
ability to apply prior knowledge and skills to a new problem

(fluid intelligence more vulnerable than crystallised intelligence)

Memory

  • moderate decline
  • normal ageing (individual differences)

Mental speed

  • speed with which one learns, solves problems and processes information declines with age
  • gradual decline beginning in middle adulthood
  • factor underlying other cognitive deficits.

Individual differences in cognitive functioning

  • Use it or lose it hypothesis
  • -> Participation in cognitively stimulating activities
  • -> Delaying retirement

PSYC101 (3 decks)

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