Human Development Flashcards
Developmental Psychology
- Examines changes in physical, emotional, personality, cognitive, moral and social development across the lifespan
- change and continuity
- changes predictable and age related
Prenatal Development
- Development before birth
- Begins with conception
- -> union of sperm and egg creates zygote
- -> single celled organism from which all other cells develop
- prenatal period comprised of 3 stages:
- -> Germinal (first 2 weeks)
- -> Embryonic (2 weeks to 2 months)
- -> Fetal (2 months to birth)
Germinal Stage (first 2 weeks)
- Formation of zygote
- Rapid cell division
- Implantation of cell mass into uterine wall
- -> duration: 1 week
- -> Many zygotes rejected
- Formation of placenta
- -> exchange system between mother and fetus
- -> oxygen and nutrients
- -> bodily waste
Embryonic Stage (2 weeks to 2 months)
- Embryo
- specialised cell division
- –> formation of physiological structures
- -> heart, spine, brain
- -> sensitive period of time (environmental impacts harmful, miscarriage)
- Beginning to look human
Fetal stage (2 months to birth)
- Fetus
- Rapid growth
- -> formation of muscle and bone (capable of physical movement)
- -> organs function
- -> fat for insulation
- -> brain specialisation
- Threshold of viability (23 to 26 weeks)
- -> age at which baby can survive premature birth
- -> increased chances of developmental problems
Teratogens
- Environmental agents that can harm the developing organism
- sensitive periods
- types of teratogens
- -> prescription and recreational drugs
- -> viruses and parasites
- -> environmental toxins
- -> malnutrition
- -> stress
Recreational drugs
Heroin and Methadone
- Heroin and methadone
- -> premature birth, low birth weight, physical defects, respiratory distress
- Born addicted
- -> feverish, irritable, distinct cry, sleeping difficulties
- First year
- -> less attentive
- -> slow motor development
RD caffeine
> 3 cups per day - low birth weight, miscarriage - withdrawal symptoms ==> irritability --> vomiting
RD tobacco
- premature birth and low birth weight
- passive smoking
RD alcohol
- Fetal alcohol syndrome (FAS)
- -> slow physical growth
- -> brain injury (small head, impairment in at least 3 areas of functioning)
- -> Facial abnormalities (short eyelid openings, thin upper lip, smooth or flattened philtrum ((indentation on upper lip)
Stress (anxiety)
Anxiety:
- miscarriage
- premature birth
- low birth weight
- respiratory and digestive illnesses
- sleep disturbances
- irritability
- disruptions to stress response
- -> heightens stress reactivity in later life
Motor Development
- development of muscular coordination required for physical activities
- Gross motor development
- -> move through environment (crawling, walking)
- Fine motor development
- -> interact with environment
- -> smaller movements (reaching, grasping)
General Principles (motor development)
Cephalocaudal trend
- head to foot
Proximodistal trend
- torso to extremities
- progress in motor development
- -> Genetics (developmental norms)
- -> learning and experience (cultural variations)
Emotional Development
Temperament
- Typical mood, activity level, and emotional reaction
- Individual differences
- -> (Thomas & Chess 1977)
Attachment
- Close emotional ties to caregiver
- gradual development
Separation Anxiety
- Emotional distress displayed by infant when separated from caregiver
- -> first sign 6-8 months
- -> Peaks 14 to 18 months and then declines
Thomas and Chess (1977)
- longitudinal study
- 3 temperament styles
–> easy child (40%)
(happy, regular routines, adapts to change, not easily upset)
–> slow to warm up child (15%)
(less happy, some irregularities in routines, slow to adapt to change)
–> difficult child (10%)
(miserable, irregular routines, resistant to change, irritable)
- Mixed (35%)
- Predictive ability
- Stability
Theories of attachment
Behaviourist (caregiver in conditioned reinforcer)
Harlow’s monkey studies (1958, 1959)
- Controlled environment
- Two substitute mothers (terrycloth, wire)
–> Mother providing food manipulated between subjects
(preference for terrycloth mother regardless of feeding conditions)
- introduce frightening stimulus
- -> monkeys run to terrycloth mother regardless of feeding condition
-contact comfort plays an important role in attachment
Ainsworth (1979)
- Quality of attachment
- Strange situation
- -> Stranger introduced
- -> Infants exposed to episodes of separation and reunion with caregiver
- -> Emotional reactions observed
- > 3 types of attachment
1. secure - caregiver used as a secure base from which to explore the environment
- Upset when caregiver leaves, approaches caregiver upon return, calmed immediately
- Insecure
> anxious- ambivalent (resistant)
- Distressed when caregiver leaves, not easily comforted upon return
>Avoidant
- not distressed when caregiver leaves, seeks little contact upon return - Disorganised disorientated (main and solomom)
- confusion over approach or avoidance of caregiver
Theories of attachment (#2)
Factors affecting attachment style
- caregivers sensitivity
- infants temperament
Consequences of attachment style
- R/ships
- emotional reaction
- cognitive development
Cultural variation
- secure attachment predominant cross- culturally
Personality development
Erikson’s Stage Theory (1963)
- Childhood events shape adult personality
- Personality evolves over lifespan
- 8 stages
Each stage presents a psychosocial crisis
Positive versus negative outcome
Stage 1: Trust vs. Mistrust Birth – 1 year Are basic needs met? Yes - Develop trusting attitude toward world Optimistic personality No - Develop mistrusting attitude toward world Pessimistic personality
Stage 2: Autonomy vs. Shame and Doubt
2 - 3 years of age
Can I do things myself or am I reliant on others?
Toilet training, feeding, dressing, bathing
Stage 3: Initiative vs. Guilt 3 – 6 years of age Initiate activities and enjoy accomplishments Am I good or am I bad? Acquire direction and purpose
Stage 4: Industry vs. Inferiority
6 – 12 years of age
Am I competent or am I worthless?
Develop curiosity and eager to learn
Cognitive Development
- Changes in a child’s pattern of thinking including reasoning, remembering and problem solving
Piaget’s Stage Theory
4 stages
Characterised by different thought processes
Sensorimotor period (birth – 2 years)
Preoperational period (2 – 7 years)
Concrete operational period (7 – 11 years)
Formal operational period (11years – adulthood)
Piaget’s stage theory
stage 1
Sensorimotor period (birth – 2 years) Coordination of sensory input and motor actions Simple reflexes Intentional actions Object permanence Realisation that objects continue to exist even when they are no longer visible First signs 4 – 8 months Mastery 18 months
Piaget’s stage theory
stage 2
Preoperational period (2 – 7 years) Marked by what child cannot do Conservation -- Physical quantities remain the same regardless of changes in shape or appearance Beaker test -- Not yet mastered Why?
Flaws in thinking
Complementarity
Focus attention on one feature of a problem only
E.g., focus on height, fail to acknowledge width
Reversibility
Failure to envision reversing an action
Piaget’s stage theory
stage 3
Concrete operational period (7 – 11 years)
- Development of mental operations for concrete objects and actual events (Count, add, subtract, sort)
- Master reversibility
- Many ways to look at a problem
Piaget’s stage theory
stage 4
Formal operational period (11 years – adulthood)
Abstract thinking
- Apply mental operations to hypothetical events
If stick A is shorter than stick C, and stick B is longer than stick C, is stick B longer than stick A?
Systematic approach to problem solving (Pendulum problem)
Degree of thinking changes rather than nature of thinking
Limitation of Piaget’s stage theory
- empirical evidence suggesting object permanence acquired earlier than suggested by piaget
- thought processes of children are often a mixture of stages
- fails to acknowledge environmental factors
Cognitive Development
Vygotsky’s Sociocultural Theory
- Cognitive development a product of social interaction
- language important
- -> development of cognitive skills through dialogue with others
Cognitive Development
Kohlberg’s stage theory
- Development of moral reasoning
- Heinz dilemma
What actor ought to do and why?
> 3 levels
Preconventional, Conventional, Postconventional
2 sub levels each - Marked differences in thinking about right and wrong
Preconventional level
- reasoning driven by external authorities
Stage 1: punishment orientation
–> acts are wrong if they are punished
stage 2: naive reward orientation
–> acts are right if they are rewarded
(self- interested)
Conventional level
Stage 3: Good boy/ good girl orientation
–> right and wrong determined by close others approval/ disapproval
Stage 4: Authority orientation
- -> rules necessary to maintain social order (understand function of punishment in society)
- -> rigid thinking
Postconventional level
Stage 5: Social contract orientation
–> greater flexibility in thinking about societal rules (acknowledge some people may break societal rules if personal ethics conflict)
Stage 6: Individual principles and conscience orientation
- develop personal code of ethics
- few people reach this stage
Adolescence
- Transitional period between childhood and adulthood
- 13 to 22
Physiological development
growth spurt
- rapid growth in height and weight
- hormonal changes
- sex differences in age of onset:
- -> 10 years for females
- -> 12 years for males
- proximodistal trend reversed
- -> feet- legs- torso
- -> longer legs account for height gain
- cross cultural differences ``
Physiological development
Both sexes gain muscle
–> 150% greater in males
Gross motor development
- Improved endurance, strength, and speed
- Gender differences
- -> Running speed
- -> Long jump
- -> Throwing distance
- -> Males outperform females
Sexual maturation
- Secondary sex characteristics
- -> Distinguish sexes but not essential for reproduction
Males
Voice deepens, facial hair, pubic hair, skeletal and muscle growth in upper torso
Females
Breast development, pubic hair, pelvic bones widen and increased fat deposits in hip area
Pubescence
- 2 years
- Unable to reproduce
Puberty
- Sexual functions reach maturity
Primary sex characteristics - Structures necessary for reproduction develop fully - Beginning of adolescence --> Males Penis, scrotum, testes Spermarche First occurrence of ejaculation (13 – 14 years) Maturation complete 18 years
--> Females Ovaries, uterus, vagina Menarche First occurrence of menstruation (12 – 13 years) Maturation complete 16 years
–> Generational differences in age of onset
Developed countries only
- Nutrition
- Immunisation
Individual differences in age of onset of puberty
- 10 – 15 years females
- 11 – 16 years males
Early vs. late maturation
Sex differences
- Early females and early males
- -> Emotional distress, drug and alcohol use, aggression, delinquency
- Early females
Sexual risk-taking and eating disorders - Late males
Low self-esteem
Neural Development
- White matter increases
grey matter decreases
- synaptic pruning
(elimination of less active synapses)
- most pronounced in prefrontal cortex
- executive functioning (eg. planning, problem solving, response inhibition, emotion regulation)
- Maturation complete in mid 20’s (possible explanation for increased risk taking
Adolescent risk taking
other factors to consider
- peer influence
- inflated sense of importance (reduced perception of vulnerability)
Personality development
Erikson stage theory (5 to 8)
Erikson’s Stage Theory Stage 1: Trust vs. Mistrust Stage 2: Autonomy vs. Shame and Doubt Stage 3: Initiative vs. Guilt Stage 4: Industry vs. Inferiority
Stage 5: Identity vs. Confusion
- Adolescence
- Who am I and where am I going?
- -> Stable self-image and set of values
- Exploration and commitment
- Influenced by previous stages
- Identity formation can extend into adulthood
Stage 6: Intimacy vs. Isolation
- Early adulthood
- Should I share my life with another or live alone?
- Positive outcome
- -> Promotes empathy and openness
- Negative outcome
- -> Hesitancy to form close relationships
Stage 7: Generativity vs. Self-absorption
- Middle adulthood
- Will I produce something of real value?
- Positive outcome
- -> Concern for the welfare of future generations
- -> Unselfish guidance to younger individuals
- -> Concern with one’s legacy
- Negative outcome
- -> Concerned with own comfort
Stage 8: Integrity vs. Despair
- Late adulthood
- Have I lived a full life?
- Positive outcome
- -> Satisfied with life, feels life was meaningful
- Negative outcome
- -> Feels life was un- meaningful, resentful and bitter, fears death
Personality development in adulthood
Stability
- Roberts and DelVecchio (2000)
- -> reviewed 150 studies
- -> personality in early adulthood predicts personality in late adulthood
Change
- Big 5 personality traits
- -> extraversion, neuroticism, and openness to experience decreases with age
- -> agreeableness and conscientiousness increase with age
- Self- esteem peaks at 60 years then gradually declines
Social changes (adulthood)
Transitions in family life
- not universal
Marriage
- postponing until late 20’s or early 30’s
Parenthood
- Increase in the number of individuals choosing to remain childless
- first child
- -> disruption of routines
- -> negatives impacts greater for mother (especially if discrepancy between father’s expected contribution to childcare and actual contribution)
- -> decreased marital satisfaction (inverse relationship with number of children.)
Empty nest
- Period when all children have left home
- previously seen as a difficult time especially for mothers
- -> familiar with maternal role only
- -> additional roles outside home now make adjustment easier
- Increased marital satisfaction
- -> increased enjoyment of time spent with husband
Physiological changes (adulthood)
Appearance
- hair thins and become grey
- receding hairline and baldness in males
- body fat increases
- muscle tissue decreases
- -> potential consequence: low self esteem
Sensory loss
- Vision
- -> far sightedness, difficulty seeing in low light conditions, sensitivity to colour and contrast reduced
- Hearing
- -> noticeable after age 50
- -> impacts speech perception
- -> greater in men than women
- -> greater for high frequency sounds than low- frequency sounds
Hormonal functioning in women
- menopause (50yrs)
Neural Changes
- Gradual decline in brain tissue and brain weight after age 60
- -> decrease in active neurons
- -> shrinkage of still active neurons
- -> normal part of ageing (not related to dementia)
Cognitive Changes (adulthood)
Intelligence
- Stable through adulthood
- group averages suggest small decline after age 60
-Types of intelligence:
==> fluid intelligence: reasoning ability, memory capacity, speed of information processing
==> crystallised intelligence:
ability to apply prior knowledge and skills to a new problem
(fluid intelligence more vulnerable than crystallised intelligence)
Memory
- moderate decline
- normal ageing (individual differences)
Mental speed
- speed with which one learns, solves problems and processes information declines with age
- gradual decline beginning in middle adulthood
- factor underlying other cognitive deficits.
Individual differences in cognitive functioning
- Use it or lose it hypothesis
- -> Participation in cognitively stimulating activities
- -> Delaying retirement
