Human Development Flashcards
What is telegraphic speech and when may a child exhibit it?
Meaningful words but not in coherent sentence - will be main speech from 18-30 months
At 24 months the words may be paired and a child will have 240 words in vocabularyWha
Outline the EAS model suggested by Buss and Plomin
Developmental and multidimensional personality causational model:
- Emotionality
- Activity
- Sociability
Stable dimensions of temperament that persist into adulthood, later added impulsivity
The indulgent-permissive style of parenting includes…
Little or no limit setting with unpredictable outburst:
- Bad as associates to no self reliance, poor impulse control and aggresion
What does the adult attachment interview base its scoring on?
The narrative given of the parenting experience
The coherence of the account given
The subjects ability to give an integrated account
The meanings and language used
- it does not rely on the security of the attachment to any specific person
- Styles classified include autonomous, dissmissing, preoccupied/entangled, disorganised/unorganised
When does semiotic functioning appear?
Between 2-7 years - the function is that individuals can draw an object/event with a conceptional scheme i.e. use a sign or symbol to represent it. They may put a representative figure of themselves in the picture
How many temperaments were observed by Thomas and Chess in their longitudinal study?
9 dimensions proposed
- Activity
- Distractibility
- Attention span
- Threshold responsiveness
- Adaptability
- Intensity
- Quality of mood
- Rhythmicity
- Approach/withdrawal (how child assess novel situations)
When does puberty occur in boys on average?
10-11 years
At 18 months how many children have multiple attachments?
87% - multiple attachment is the rule rather than the exception
What is Jean Piaget’s sensorimotor stage
Birth - 2 years:
- Infants develop object permanence
- They can differentiate themselves from the world
- Symbolisation occurs - use of words and symbols to represent things
When does the separation individuation phase last according to Margret Mahler
5 months to 5 years
How do assimilation and accomodation differ?
Both aspects of accommodation as put forward by Piaget:
- Assimilation the new object/novel experiences is incorporated into the existing structure, the existing structure does not change but the individual treats the object/novel experience as familiar
- Accommodation - the psychological structure modifies in order to incorporate the object/experience
When does babbling occur?
6 months
Before then cooing is exhibited (starts 6-8 weeks / 2 months)
Babbling 6 months
1 word stage (Mumma/Dadda) - 1 year / 10-18 months
2 word stage - 2 years / 18-24 months
Basic sentence - 3 years
Adult speech 5 - years
The superego is formed in which psychosexual phase?
Latency stage (5-6 years to 11-13 years i.e puberty)
The superego forms following the resolution of the Oedipal complex
Concrete operational phase of development occurs between
7-11 years
Here egocentric thought is replaced by operational thought:
- Children appreciate things outside their world
- Can see things from other’s perspectives
- Appreciate conservationism - consistency despite change in external characteristics
- Understand quantities
When does acuity reach near adult levels?
6 months of age
For puberty to be classified as precocious when will it occur in females/males?
Females puberty before age 8
Males puberty prior to age 9
At 6 weeks a baby shows its first..
Smile
Margret Mahler proposed a theory for how children find a sense of identity that is separate to their mothers - the period from birth to two years where there is excessive sleeping is referred to as?
Autistic phase - the infant reminisces about the intrauterine environment
Castration anxiety is associated in which phase of Freud’s psychosocial development?
Phallic phase:
- 30/48 months - 5 years
- Here the Oedipal complex is defeated too
What is the electra complex?
Female oedipal complex suggested by Jung
How does a chid’s play habits vary up to year 5
Content of play:
- Sensorimotor at 6 months - i.e. enjoy shaking/rattling things
- Symbolic play at 2 years
Format of play:
- Initially solitary play
- Parallel play begins at 2 years
- Co-operative play at 3 years - children take turns/share etc
- Rule governed play starts around 5 years as children understand rules of the game
When can a child play peek-a-boo?
Around 9 months - this is the age that the child begins to understand object permanence
Kohlberg’s 1966 gender identity theory proposed…
By 2 years a child can identify their gender
By 4 years the child knows their gender is stable
By 7 years child is aware their gender is constant and independent of external features
Outline Bowlby’s stages of grief
I - shock and disbelief (days)
II - yearning - searching (preoccupation, somatic distress, withdrawal) - weeks
III - Disorganisation/dispair - months
IV - reorganisation - 1-2 years
In disorganised attachment what do behaviour do children exhibit on maternal reunion?
Bizarre, contradictory or unusual behaviour (SPMM uses the example of a rigid and frozen child)
How does adoption affect attachment?
Adopted children who have experienced neglect early in life may benefit from adoption where it can lead to a more secure attachment style
Severe early life adversity however can have distant effects on the adoptee’s attachment representation.
Regarding adopted parents they have actually been found to be more psychologically adjusted with more secure states of mind than non-adoptive parents.
Outline Lawrence Kohlberg’s 3 stage theory of moral development
Pre-conventional morality - punishment and obedience are the determining factors
Morality of role conformity - children want to gain approval, maintain good relationships with others and like “law and order” authoritarian orientation
Post-conventional - self-accepted morals which apply universally but can be broken under certain conditions (note on 10-15% reach this level)
In the Cambridge study what factors in children 8-10 years can predict later delinquent behaviour age 32?
Low IQ, poor school attainment
ADHD
Family criminality
Antisocial behaviour
Family poverty
Poor parental child-rearing behaviour
What is imprinting
A form of learning that occurs in the critical period of development straight away or very soon after birth
Irreversible, sensitive, specific, life-long - example would be ducklings that become dependent on someone they were exposed to straight away (Lorenz)
In Jean Piaget’s theory when does formal operational period begin?
Age 11 to end of adolescence
- Here individuals can carry out logical, systematic thinking
- Individuals in this stage use hypothetical deductive reasoning - testing out concepts in their mindJ
Jealousy, shame and guilt may be seen in what age in children?
3 years - after 24 months children have a sense of self that allows these complex emotions to arise
Joy, sadness, anger, fearfulness and suprise
Jealousy, shame and guilt may be seen in what age in children?
3 years - after 24 months children have a sense of self that allows these complex emotions to arise
Joy, sadness, anger, fearfulness and surprise are seen in first 6 months
According to Piaget how was development?
Done in hierarchical stages
Each stage is qualitatively and quantitatively different
In each stage there are invariant functions that children undergo sequentially
Can you outline Freud’s psychosexual stages?
Child moves from infantile sexuality to genital sexuality. Successful resolution of the inner conflicts and anxiety signals allows biological and psychological maturation.
Oral stage (0 - 1.5 years):
- Drive discharge is sucking
- Oral erotogenic zone
- Ego develops here
Anal stage (1.5 - 3 years):
- Anal erotogenic zone
- Drive discharge via sphincter behaviour
- Anal sadism is the aggressive wishes linked to faecal explusaion
- Anal fixation can result in OCD like tendencies
Phallic/oedipal stage (3 to 5 years);
- Genitals are the organ of interest
- Oedipal complex for boys and the electra complex for girls arises and they resolved - the child identifies with aggressor (same sex parent)
- Girls develop penis envy - blame mother for not having a penis and wish to displace her
- The superego develops
Latency stage (5 to 11 years):
- Socialising
- Sexual energy is sublimated
Genital stage (Puberty onwards):
- Biological maturation
What age does attachment occur?
- 0 to 8/12 weeks is pre-attachment
- 8/12 weeks to 6 months is attachment in the making or indiscriminate attachment - infants become attached to one or more persons
- 6 months to 24 months is clear cut attachment: stranger anxiety, separation anxiety, object permanence
- 25 months - mother is seen as independent
What attachment styles were defined from Mary Ainsworth’s strange situation experiment?
Type A - anxious avoidant (15%) - becomes classified as dismissing on AAI
- Not anxious with mother leaving but when alone. Stranger can comfort, child is indifferent to mother’s return. Correlates with bullying behaviour later in life.
- Found in unresponsive carers
Type B - secure (70%) - classified as autonomous secure on AAI.
- Can use mother as a base, upset when mother leaves and reassured when she returns. Not comforted by stranger but able to be in their presence if mother is around.
- Found in sensitive and responsive carers
Type C - anxious ambivalent/resistant (15%) - classified as entangled/preoccuoied on AAI
- High distress on mother leaving and not comforted when she returns. Unable to use mother as a base and fearful of stranger. Active resistance to stranger. Israeli and Japanese families, correlates with bullying victims.
- Found in inconsistent carers
Type D - disorganised - classified as disorganised/unresolved on AAI. Insecure and dazed look as if frightened by mother. Seen in abuse victims.
Note attachment style may differ with different caregivers and reflects the quality of caregiving not the child’s temperament
Outline the stages of Margret Mahler’s individuation-separation theory
Normal autism (0 - 2 months)
Symbiosis (2 - 5 months)
Separation - individuation phase (DPRO):
- Differentiation (6-10 months): begin to appreciate them and the mother may be different. The mother may come and go - stranger anxiety
- Practicing (10 - 18 months): child begins to explore connections in the world. Separation is brief and child may only be comfortable if mother is around
- Rapprochement (18 - 24 months): child has alternating drives to be autonomous and independent. Able to explore alone but requires comfort and reassurance on return. Use of transitional objects, ego-splits and tantrums exhibited with the alternating drives
- Object constancy (2-5 years): understand if mother is gone she is not lost and can function by self.
Name some concepts Donald Winnicott is responsible for?
- Good enough mother - to provide a growth sustaining environment (holding)
- Transitional Object
- That child’s psychological development occurs in a zone between reality and fantasy known as the transitional zone
- Theory of multiple self-organisations - through parental impositions a child can develop a false self-different to the real self
How did Thomas and Chess identify behavioural styles identified with the 9 dimensions?
Easy - 40% - rhythmic behaviour pattern and adapts well
Difficult - 10% - behaviour is more unpredictable, uncomfortable with new experiences, negative mood, react intensely to stimuli and difficult to comfort
Slow to warm up - 15% - again do not adapt to change well however less intense than difficult children and less active
35% remain ungrouped
What are Erikson’s stages of cognitive development?
- Sequential stages of cognitive development in children
- Positive and negative outcomes are noted for most people - if more negative will have poorer outcomes later in life
- Stage does not need to be resolved fully in order to pass to the next
- Basic trust vs. basic mistrust - Birth to 12 to 18 months (HOPE)
- Autonomy vs shame - 18 months to 3 years (WILL)
- Initiative vs. guilt - 3 to 6 years (PURPOSE)
- Industry vs. inferiority - 6 to 12 years (COMPETENCE)
- Identity vs. role confusion - adolescence (FIDELITY)
- Social identity is formed
- First stage where development depends on what individual does - develop a sense of self and personal identity. The transition can cause confusion and insecuity
- Intimacy vs isolation - young adulthood (LOVE)
- Task of young adulthood to find a partner - Generativity vs. stagnation - mid adulthood (CARE)
- Production in work and social life with productivity - Ego integrity vs despair - late adulthood (WISDOM)
- Life long interests as we prepare for the end of life
Outline Piaget’s stages of cognitive development?
Sensorimotor (0-2 years)
- Inborn motor and sensory reflexes
- Primary circular reactions - use reflexes to extend to objects
- Secondary circular reactions - reflexes become goal directed
- Tertiary circular reactions - coordintated reactions with curiosity
- Insight and object permanence (later from 9 months)
Pre-operational (2-7 years)
- Deferred imitation
- Symbolic play
- Graphic play
- Semiotic functioning (using symbols)
- Language
Concrete operational (7-11 years)
- Egocentric thought replaced by operational thought
- Can understand amounts (number/length, mass, area, weight, volume)
- Syllogistic reasoning (logical conclusions formed from two premises).
Formal operational (> 11 years)
- Hypothetico-deductive reasoning
Broadly outline the stages of language development
Pre-linguistic (0-12 months):
- Cooing at 6 weeks
- Babbling at 6 months
One word stage/holophrastic phrase (12-18 months):
- First words are self invented - holophrases are one-word substitutes for whole phrases
- Child imitates other language
- Words are context bound
Two word sentences / stage 1 grammar (18-30 months):
- Telegraphic speech
- Meaningful words are used without connecting words
- Motherese - short simple raised pitch paraphrased language
- As object permanence develops - words have presentational functions
Stage 2 grammar (> 30 months):
- Mean length of utterances increases largely due to the use of function words
Can be sub-broken down to:
- 18-24 months - uses simple words, understands simple body parts and begins to combine words - knows 40-50 words
- 24-36 months - increased vocab can make short sentences, ask questions, knows 150-300 words
- 36-48 months - strangers understand what is said, can use past tense, knows 900-1000 words
Outline Kohlberg’s theory of moral development
Pre-conventional morality (0-9 years) - Right and wrong is decided by consequences
1. Punishment and obedience orientation
2. Reward orientation/instrumental relativism - what brings reward is right
Conventional morality (9-20 years)
3. Concordance orientation - what pleases others is right - good boy/good girl orientation - child conforms to avoid disapproval and meet expectations
4. Social order or authority orientation (loyalty to law and order) - maintaining societal order is the goal and follow these to avoid guilt for not doing duty
Post conventional morality (20 years +):
5. Social construct and legalistic orientation (justice and spirit of the law) - actions guided by principles that are commonly agreed to one’s group
6. Universal ethical principles orientation - actions guided by self-chosen ethical principles - laws and social rules are generally valid but can b broken if universal morality is not upheld
Kohlberg used the Heinz dilemma to test this
Only male sample used
