Basic psychology

Question 1

What is sensory memory?

Answer 1

A super acute memory store of a particular modality processed by sense organs - commonest iconic (visual) and echoic (auditory).

Information that is attended to is transferred to the short-term memory store and that that is not attended to is quickly lost

Question 2

A patient who keeps going to slot machine with the hope of winning big - when he wins what is the operant conditioning mechanism?

Answer 2

Variable ratio - he is rewarded after a random number of responses then again after a further random number of responses

Question 3

How does reciprocal inhibition try to lead to improved emotional/behavioural response?

Answer 3

By the principle of trying to ameliorate a feeling with the presence of the opposite

i.e provide ice cream if a fear response is there
Happiness and fear cannot co-exist

Question 4

What is habit-reversal training?

Answer 4

Useful in tics or trichotillomania - here the patient learns awareness of the urge to the behaviour then a competing behaviour

Question 5

What is operant conditioning?

Answer 5

Designed to increase a positive behaviour being performed by giving a stimulus immediately after

Positive reinforcement - pleasant stimulus immediately after added
Negative reinforcement - aversive or bad stimulus removed

Can be reinforced continuously or intermittently like a slot machine (intermittent reinforcement develops behaviour resistant to extinction) or Partial reinforcement behaviours are acquired more slowly and extinguish slower.

Question 6

What are Piagets basic building blocks of learning?

Answer 6

Schema (use of past experience to understand future experiences) - can be physical like riding a bike or mental like addition, multiplication etc

Question 7

How do compulsions exhibit their effects?

Answer 7

Through negative reinforcement - a stimulus is presented to remove anxiety. Ritualistic avoidance

The behaviour is repeated more because of this

Question 8

How do elaborative and maintenance rehearsal differ?

Answer 8

Elaborative rehearsal refers to deep processing to allow information to be stored in long term memory it includes forming associations or groupings

Maintenance rehearsal describes the processing that prevents information from leaving short term memory i.e. repeating a phone number again and again while finding a pen

Question 9

Which emotions are characterised by high and low temperatures?

Answer 9

High:
- Anger

Low:
- Fear and disgust

Question 10

What is the name given to bringing a complete memory into conscious awareness from a partial cue e.g. remembering the memory of hearing a song from the first sounds?

Answer 10

Reintegration

Question 11

Outline Plutchik’s eight basic emotions and if you can give examples of the secondary emotions that come from combinations of them?

Answer 11

Anticipation - Surprise

Joy - Sadness

Acceptance - Disgust

Anger - Fear

Secondary emotions arise from a mix of primary emotions

Joy + Acceptance = Love
Joy + Anticipation = Optimisim
Sadness + Suprise = Disappointment

Question 12

Outline the steps of cognitive processing in the social learning of behaviour

Answer 12

1. Attention to observed behaviour
2. Visual and semantic encoding of observed behaviour
3. Memory permanence via retention and rehearsal
4. Motor imitation and practice
5. Motivation to act

Question 13

Who proposed the filter theory of attention and what does it describe?

Answer 13

David Broadbent proposed the filter theory for attention

He felt a central processor is responsible for selecting which sensory input is attended to. This central processor can switch channel but not more than twice a second. He also felt that information in the unattended channel can only remain there for a few seconds.

This filtering act of the central processor describes the buffer/barrier that exists between sensory and short term/working memory

Question 14

In phobic desensitisation, what is imaginary flooding termed?

Answer 14

Implosion

Question 15

Name the mechanisms of forgetting and which are most common?

Answer 15

Failure of encoding at the time of input
Failure of transfer from short to long term memory
Failure of retrieval - most common!

Question 16

What is failure of prospective memory?

Answer 16

A failure of intention - when an individual fails to remember that something needs to be carried out in the future (a predefined time) and what it is

i.e. absent mindedness - when someone forgets to remember appointments/medication etc

Question 17

What is the optimum time interval in operant conditioning?

Answer 17

< 0.5 seconds - immediacy

> 5 seconds - experiments by Skinner failure to show any learning

Question 18

What symptoms are present in Korsakoff’s?

Answer 18

Confabulation
Anterograde amnesia
Retrograde amnesia
Some psychotic features

Differs from Wernicke’s in timing but also Wernicke’s describes ataxia, opthalmoplegia and altered mental state

Question 19

Who proposed 6 basic emotions of anger, disgust, fear, joy, suprise, sadness?

Answer 19

Paul Ekman

Question 20

Name Gestalts principle of perception?

Answer 20

Proximity
Closure
Similarity
Symmetry
Continuity

Gestalt principles describes the process that our brains do to perceive whole unified objects rather than unconnected images
- the whole is perceived first (good ecological validity for 2D images less for 3D)

Question 21

What is the Ebbinghaus curve?

Answer 21

Showed the rate of forgetting of non-sense syllables over a period of time - after 9 hours there is a sharp rate of forgetting with reductions in recall declining after this.

His other experiments showed that forgetting is never complete and some is remembered, that recall during a test period increases chance of remembering and that continuous motor skills i.e. swimming/cycling show no forgetting compared to intermittent motor skills i.e. typing

Question 22

Eyesneck’s personality traits were?

Answer 22

He proposed a three factor theory

Psychoticism-impulse control
Extraversion-introversion
Neuroticism-stability

These dimensions are very heritable

Question 23

For Rorschach inkblot test is it structured or unstructured?

Answer 23

Unstructured as there is almost an infinite variety of responses an individual can give

Question 24

What is the Brown-Peterson task?

Answer 24

Listen to three items - then a distractor task i.e. count backwards from 10, then recall three items again

Question 25

You can only play tunes if you revise first - what is the principle behind this guidance?

Answer 25

Premack principle - the idea that a preferred task will motivate/reinforce an unfavoured task from taking place

Question 26

With regards to short term memory what is chunking?

Answer 26

Chunking is the act of grouping or combining units of information to make it easier to remember and recall - it allows the individual to bypass the limited capacity of working memory Miller proposed it

Question 27

What is the least developed sensory system at birth?

Answer 27

Vision!

Question 28

Group theories of motivation into: a) Socio-psychological b) Humanistic c) Physiological

Answer 28

a) Needs theory (intrinsic theory) - includes McCelland's needs theory (need for achievement, affiliation and power) and Deci and Maclaren's needs theory (need for competition, relatedness and autonomy) b) Maslow's hierarchy of needs c) Homeostatic theory (Cannon), Drive reduction (Hull), Arousal reduction (Hebb)

Question 29

What area of the brain is largely responsible for short term memory?

Answer 29

Dorsolateral prefrontal cortex

Question 30

Describe the capacity of sensory memory?

Answer 30

Large capacity but includes unprocessed memories of short duration < 0.5 seconds

Question 31

What is a flash-bulb memory?

Answer 31

The vivid recall of autobiographical memories associated with emotional arousal - however they're accuracy cannot be assumed

Question 32

Does situation specific amnesia occur in adjustment disorder?

Answer 32

No

Question 33

What are the three abilities that make up Sternberg's triadic theory of intelligence?

Answer 33

Creative Physical Analytical CPA

Question 34

Outline three types of non-associative learning?

Answer 34

Habituation - repeated exposure to a stimulus leads to decreased response Sensitisation - repeated exposure to a stimulus results in increased response Pseudoconditioning - emergence of a learned response to a previous neutral stimulus due to exposure of a powerful different stimulus

Question 35

Outline the three types of associative learning?

Answer 35

Classical conditioning - Occurs through the temporal pairing of stimuli - The learning individual is passive and respondent i.e. the learning is an innate reflex Operant conditioning - Learning through learning the consequences of a response - an operation - Here the individual is instrumental as they actively operate in the environment Social learning theory: - Combines both operant and classical conditioning and includes cognitive processes and a social interaction

Question 36

In classical conditioning with Pavlov's dogs what is a) Conditioned stimulus b) Unconditioned stimulus c) Unconditioned response d) Conditioned response

Answer 36

a) Bell - it is conditioned as normally a bell does not illicit salivation b) Food - food does not require conditioning to illicit salivation c) UCR - salivation - occurs naturally d) CR - refers to when salivation occurs following only the conditioned stimulus (bell) The process of developing an association between conditioned stimulus and unconditioned response - acquisition

Question 37

Differentiate a) Forward or delayed conditioning b) Backward conditioning c) Simultaneous d) Trace conditioning

Answer 37

a) CS (bell) appears first, then UCS (food) - both continue until salivation b) UCS (food) appears first then the bell - doesn't work with animals, used in advertising c) Both CS and UCS come together - most common in real life d) CS then removed and a pause before UCS presented - depends on a trace of the memory

Question 38

What did Rescoria show with regards to conditioning?

Answer 38

That predictiveness (i.e could you predict the nature of the UCS stimulus from the CS) is more important than temporal contiguity (< 0.5 ms) For animals only awareness is needed for facilitation

Question 39

What is higher-order conditioning?

Answer 39

Using the conditioned stimulus (CS1) as the unconditioned stimulus for a second conditioned stimulus (CS2) - animals don't respond higher than 4th order

Question 40

What does discrimination refer to with regards to conditioning?

Answer 40

Its the opposite of stimulus generalisation i.e. a child may only be afraid of dogs rather than all four legged or furry animals

Question 41

What is extinction?

Answer 41

Not loss of learning but loss of the behavioural response - occurs when the conditioned stimulus and unconditioned stimulus no longer pair of the reinforcer is no longer present Spontaneous recovery is regaining a once lost response after some time

Question 42

How come latent inhibition prevent learning?

Answer 42

In classical conditioning if the conditioned stimulus has been previously exposed in an independent/isolated time then it may affect the pairing to the UCR

Question 43

What type of conditioning is used in systematic desensitisation and aversion therapy?

Answer 43

Counter conditioning - replacing a previously learned response with a desirable one

Question 44

Learning a behaviour because the right behaviour leads to desirable consequences refers to what type of learning?

Answer 44

Operant conditioning

Question 45

Who used trial and error learning experiments?

Answer 45

Thorndike - helped show operant conditioning

Question 46

How do reinforcement and punishment differ?

Answer 46

Reinforcement is aimed at trying to increase the frequency of a behaviour Punishment tries to decrease the frequency of a behaviour

Question 47

Outline a) positive reinforcement b) negative reinforcement c) positive punishment d) negative punishment

Answer 47

a) Giving money for doing your chores b) Not having to do the washing up if you tidy your room - remove an aversive stimulus c) Hitting someone or points on license d) Take away someones playstation - remove a positive item. Monetary fines included here as money is taken away

Question 48

Contrast and differentiate reinforcement schedules?

Answer 48

Continuous or contingency reinforcement - occurs after every positive response Partial - only some of the positive responses result in positive reinforcement - depends on number of responses (ratio) or time (interval) Fixed interval - any number of responses but reinforcement occurs after a defined interval Variable interval - varying unit of time before reinforcement occurs - fishing Fixed ratio - after twenty press ups I'll sip on my drink/rest Variable ratio - random number of responses before reinforcement - i.e, gambling

Question 49

In agoraphobia an individual avoiding places is known as?

Answer 49

Escape conditioning - a type of avoidance learning

Question 50

How do covert sensitisation and covert reinforcement differ?

Answer 50

Covert - imagined Covert reinforcement - imagining the positive reinforcer i.e graduation to get one to study Covert sensitisation - imagining punishment that may occur if bad behaviour is done - i.e. if keep drinking wife may leave be without a job

Question 51

What is successive approximation?

Answer 51

Also known as shaping occurs when a desirable behaviour is progressed to through successive reinforcement of behaviours that get closer to the target i.e dog runs towards a wheel but doesn't jump - gets a bone dog runs and jumps towards but not through the wheel - gets a bone dog jumps through the wheel - gets a bone NOTE SHAPING IS USED WHEN THE BEHAVIOUR IS NOT YET PRESENT

Question 52

What is chaining?

Answer 52

Reinforcing a series of related behaviours which provide the cue for the next to obtain a reinforcer. OCCURS WHEN THE BEHAVIOUR IS PRESENT BUT NOT IN THE CORRECT ORDER i.e. linking letters wrote correctly in the right order - forward or making a cake - starting with icing, then icing and baking - backward

Question 53

What is incubation?

Answer 53

Increase in strength if brief and repeated exposure of the stimulus - ie. rumination about anxiety-provoking stimuli Maintains phobias and PTSD

Question 54

What is the process of unlearning a cue?

Answer 54

Fading

Question 55

Bandura came up with...

Answer 55

Social learning theory Here social learning theorists felt individuals could learn a potential behaviour before doing it - behaviourists disagreed

Question 56

What is reciprocal causation?

Answer 56

An aspect of social learning theory that proposes the individual, the behaviour and the environment all influence each other

Question 57

Tolman's cognitive learning refers to?

Answer 57

The fact that learning can take place without the learned response - i.e rats can make cognitive maps of mazes (place expectation) which encompass what they expect to arise before they actually are in them Learning without performance - latent learning

Question 58

What is Gagne's learning hierarchy?

Answer 58

Proposes that simple learning takes place earlier in development and other learning then follows 1. Classical conditioning 2. Operant conditioning 3. Chaining 4. Verbal association 5. Discrimination learning 6. Concept learning 7. Rule learning 8. Problem solving

Question 59

What is insight learning?

Answer 59

From Koher - very much opposed to associative learning and felt a learning is purely cognitive

Question 60

What is the cocktail party effect?

Answer 60

Being able to filter background/ground noise and perceive a stimulus i.e. our friends voice

Question 61

Depth perception depends on....

Answer 61

Non--pictorial (binocular) and pictorial cues Non-pictorial - retinal image disparity, stereopsis, accommodation, convergence Pictorial - size, brightness, superimposition, texture, linear perspective, aerial perspective, motion parallax

Question 62

When in a dark room and after a while a small, dim light appears as it is moving what can explain this?

Answer 62

Autokinesis - visual illusion

Question 63

What is phi-phenomenon

Answer 63

Perceptual illusion of perceiving moving images if still images are flicked together

Question 64

Name some theories of perception

Answer 64

Bottom up theory - e.g Gestalt we percieve a set of subsystems (emergent system) as a whole Top down theory - Gregory - use prior information already known to form a hypothesis that allows sketchy retinal images to be formed Perceptual set - The readiness to percieve selected features of an object depends on one's motivation (hunger, beliefs, mood, context and expectations)

Question 65

Differentiate the terms selective/focussed attention and capacity or divided attention

Answer 65

Selective/focussed attention - mechanism by which certain information is registered whereas other irrelevant info is rejected - tested with dichotic listening task -> repeating messages said into one ear is shadowing Divided/capacity attention is the maximum processing limit that can be performed on incoming information at one time --> dual-task technique (and individual has to attend and respond to all incoming messages)

Question 66

What is triesman's attenuation theory?

Answer 66

That based on the semantic or physical characteristics messages are chosen to be processed fully or partially (the central executive weakens processing)

Question 67

How else is the pertinence model of attention known?

Answer 67

Deutch-Norman late selection filter model: - Here all inputs are analysed at a high level - Filtering only happens later

Question 68

How does pigeon holing expand Broadbent's early model?

Answer 68

This refers to categorisation and that an individual may not filter on the basis of physical characteristics but semantic categories above other stimuli

Question 69

When we first learn piano this is under BLANK control however when we are more skilled automatic motor processes and attention can be directed to singing this is BLANK control.

Answer 69

Closed loop control - is the conscious attentional system Open loop control - occurs when automatic processes take over. This is faster and means attention can be divided elsewhere

Question 70

Who proposed a hierarchical model of attention?

Answer 70

Sohlberg and Mateer. The hierarchical model of attention was based on how patients with brain damage sequentially recover.

Question 71

Name the 3 processes that occur with the formation and accessing of memories?

Answer 71

Encoding - formation of an initial memory trace and receives information from the outside Storage - holding and maintaining information Retrieval - access and recover information from stores

Question 72

What is the duration of short term memory storage?

Answer 72

15 to 30 seconds or 7 +/- 2 items Maintenance rehearsal and chunking can increase the capacity of STM

Question 73

Who divided LTM into declarative and non-declarative?

Answer 73

Tulving

Question 74

What is priming?

Answer 74

Information that is learnt without requiring conscious recall - form of implicit/non-declarative learning as it cannot be consciously inspected

Question 75

State the component's of Baddley & Hitch's model of working memory?

Answer 75

Phonological loop: - Auditory rehearsal loops - Dyslexia may be related to erratic phonological loop Visuospatial sketchpad: - Pattern recognition and movement perception components Central executive: - Capacity limited but modality free Episodic buffer (added later): - Multimodal store integrates information onto the LTM

Question 76

Name the two types of serial position effect?

Answer 76

Primacy - words first in a list remembered better. Thought to be due to consolidation to LTM occurs during the list Recency - words at the end are remembered better. Last heard words are freshly retained. Recency is better intact in those with anterograde amnesia - can't form the transfer info from STM to LTM and/or retrieve from LTM. Retrograde amnesia physically consolidated memories fail

Question 77

Name the three types of memory retrieval

Answer 77

Recognition Recall - active and involves reproducing Reintegration/reconstruction - recall based on partial cue. Not as accurate i.e. in eyewitnesses the account is influenced by the type of questioning

Question 78

Encoding specificity principle refers to?

Answer 78

The more similar the retrieval situation is to the encoding situation the better the retrieval

Question 79

Sudden onset anterograde amnesia with a retrograde amnesia for preceding days or week may make you think of?

Answer 79

Transient global amnesia - caused by temporary lack of blood flow to regions of brain concerned with memory function

Question 80

Where are the neural correlates of the phonological STM system in the brain?

Answer 80

L Broca's areas and PFC - visuospatial STM is mediated by parietal and R prefrontal areas

Question 81

What is interference with regards to retrieval?

Answer 81

Piecing together easily accessible information - this is biased

Question 82

What is retroactive interference (in interference theory)?

Answer 82

When newly learnt information interferes with old material - Proactive interference refers to when new information being prevented from old material

Question 83

How do inductive and deductive reasoning differ?

Answer 83

Deductive - theory driven and top down: - Theory - hypothesis - observation - confirmation Inductive reasoning - bottom up and broader - Observations = pattern - tentative hypothesis and theory

Question 84

What are the two broad types of problem solving?

Answer 84

Algorithmic: - Time consuming done step by step to ensure a solution Heuristics: - Rule of thumb (Tversky and Kahenman)

Question 85

Outline what is meant by the following heuristic decision making processses a) Representativeness bias b) Availability heuristics c) Base rate fallacy d) Gambler's fallacy e) Sunk cost bias or entrapment f) Anchoring-adjustment g) Conjunction rule h) Confirmation bias i) Diagnostic momentum

Answer 85

a) Use stereotypical features to fit the problem into a well known category b) Recent information available to the individual forms their decision c) Assume a false positive than true positive in unlikely/rare events given their rarity d) As an outcome has not happened in a while it should occur e) Continuing with an action and feeling cannot withdraw as the cost that has happened is too great f) Lock onto early features of a patient's initial impression and use this to anchor later action plan/outcome ignoring later salient points g) False belief that multiple reasons occuring together explain a presentation rather than one simple belief i.e. ocums razor h) Using information that arises in a way to fit preconceived belief i) Carrying on with a diagnostic label from a different clinician despite the belief that it could be incorrect

Question 86

Name the two dimensions of personality theories?

Answer 86

Situationalism (situation influenced) vs dispositional (personality is enduring and consistent) Nomothetic (shared traits) vs. idiographic (unique traits)

Question 87

What are allport's different traits?

Answer 87

Cardinal traits - influential, core traits that provide the ruling for individual's behaviour and actions. Not everyone has them Central traits: 5-10 which can be detected by others Secondary traits: less influential only those close to the individual will be able to detect them - only arise in certain situations

Question 88

How does Cattell's approach differ to Allports?

Answer 88

Cattell proposed there are surface traits that relate to each other but not fundamental to explaining personality but then there are source traits which are. He came up with this through selecting 4,500 of Cattell's words and reducing them to 171 elements to do factor analysis on - source traits formed 16 PF questionnaire. 3 types of data can reveal the categorical differences between normal and abnormal personality: Q-data - questionnaires L-data - life-time data T-data - test date thematic apprerception test

Question 89

How did Eyesneck's approach differ to Cattell's

Answer 89

He had a dimensional view of personality and used second order analysis (orthogonal factor analysis) - Cattell used first order analysis Both Eyesneck and Cattell believed in shared features (nomothetic) that were influenced by disposition

Question 90

What is Cloniger's psychobiological model of personality?

Answer 90

Prpopesed four dimensions of temperament that manifest early in life (heritable) and 3 components of character (shaped by envinroment) Temperaments: - Novelty seeking - Harm-avoidance - Reward-dependence - Persistance Character dimensions: - Self-directedness - Cooperativeness - Self-transcendence

Question 91

Name some projective tests of personality

Answer 91

- Rorschach inkblot test - free association and inquiry phase - both analysed later and there is Exner's system for scoring - Thematic apperception test (Murray - make a picture from the blank card) - Sentence completion test - Word-association test (Jung -time pressured) - Draw a person test

Question 92

Name some structured ways of assessing personality?

Answer 92

Q-sort technique - subject picks cards with labels that they feel describes them International personality disorders examination - Has self-report and screening quesitons - Compatible with DSM and ICD - Includes late onset or past personality disorder labels Minnesota multi-phasic personality inventor: - Self-report - HAs ten scales with clinical labels - 567 statements

Question 93

Outline Maslow's 5 level and 7 level hierarchy needs

Answer 93

D needs - motives B needs - growth/being needs 5: Self actualisation 4: Self-esteem 3: Belonging 2: Safety 1: Shelter 8: Transcendance 7: Self-actualisation 6: Aesthetic 5: Cognitive 4: Esteem 3: Belonging 2: Safety 1: Physiological - Note in this model levels 1-4 are D needs and levels 5-8 are B needs

Question 94

What is drive reduction theory?

Answer 94

Created by hull - if there is an imbalance in homeostasis this creates a psychological drive (arousal) to reduce the biological need Primary drives are biological - hunger etc Secondary drives are learned from primary - i.e power/self-esteem

Question 95

What us optimal discrepancy?

Answer 95

The strongest form of curiosity when information is different from what we know but not so dissimilar that it is strange or irrelevant

Question 96

What is cognitive consistence theory?

Answer 96

That dissonance created from cognitive inconsistencies drives us to correct the imbalance and make things consistent

Question 97

Compare and contrast the following theories of emotion a) James-Lange b) Cannon-Bird c) Schacter-Singer labelling theory d) Lazarus

Answer 97

a) Emotional perception depends on bodily (skeletal and visceral) changes. There is a feedback loop where the thalamus interpets the bodily signal and on the basis of this the emotion is labelled. A modification is the facial feedback where the thalamus interpret facial signals and perceives emotions accordingly. Cons are that there is enough variety in bodily responses to explain the range of emotions b) Emotional perception and bodily changes happen simultaneously - the thalamus mediates both the cognitive interpretation but also sends signals to the hypothalamus to drive bodily changes c) Two factor or labelling theory whereby perception of emotion depends on the bodily changes but the context too. When a stimulus comes up physiological changes and conscious experience happens the same time - arousal is interpreted as positive or negative and labelled using situational cues. d) Lazarus proposes that cognitive appraisal occurs before the affective reaction. That immediate, intuitive and personal attributions made by the individual dictates their subjective experience of emotion.