Human Biology, Chemistry, Cell Structure & Function Flashcards

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1
Q

What are the levels of organization in human biology?

A

-atom/molecule -cell -tissue -organ -organ system -organism -population -community -ecosystem -biosphere

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2
Q

List/Describe the Characteristics of Living Things

A
  • different molecular composition
  • require energy and raw materials
  • composed of cells
  • maintain homeostasis
  • respond to external environment
  • grow and reproduce

*populations of living things evolve

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3
Q

Parts of Scientific Method/ How it Works

A
  1. ) observe and generalize(inductive reasoning): make generalizations based on observations about the world
  2. ) formulate a hypothesis: statement that can lead to testable deductions (can be tested)
  3. ) make a testable prediction: what could happen
  4. ) experiment or observe: manipulation of natural world to test prediction
  5. ) modify hypothesis/ repeat steps 3 & 4
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4
Q

What is science/scientific theory?

A
  • Science: the study of the natural world
  • Scientific Theory: broad hypothesis that has been extensively tested and supported over time
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5
Q

What is a Controlled Experiment/Test Group/Control Group?

A
  • Controlled Experiment: all possible variables are controlled so they cannot affect the outcome
  • Test Group: group that receives the variable being tested
  • Control Group: group that does not receive the variable being tested
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6
Q

Define: Hypothesis/Theory/Experiment

A
  • Hypothesis: a statement that can lead to testable deductions
  • Theory: a broad hypothesis that has been extensively tested and supported over time and explains a broad range of scientific facts with a high degree of reliability
  • Experiment: a carefully planned and executed manipulation of the natural world to test your prediction
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7
Q

Define:Conclusion/Observation/Data

A
  • Conclusion: a judgment or decision reached by reasoning
  • Observations: observing someone or something carefully in order to gain information
  • Data: numerical information that can be organized and interpreted
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8
Q

Define: Variable/Experimental Group/Control Group/Placebo

A
  • Variable: factors that might vary during the course of an experiment
  • Experimental Group: the group of subjects that receives the experimental treatment
  • Control Group: undergo all the steps in an experiment except for the one being tested
  • Placebo: “false treatment”
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9
Q

Define: Metabolism/Cell/Homeostasis

A
  • Metabolism: the physical and chemical process involved in transforming energy and molecules so that life can be sustained
  • Cell: smallest unit of life that exhibits all characteristics of life
  • Homeostasis: the maintenance of a relatively constant internal environment
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10
Q

Define: Atom/Proton/Neutron/Electron

A
  • Atom: the smallest unit of any element that still retains the physical and chemical propertires of that element
  • Proton: positively charged subatomic particle in the nucleus of an atom
  • Neutron: uncharged subatomic particle found in the atomic nucleus
  • Electron: Negatively charged subatomic particle/ orbit the atoms nucleus
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11
Q

Define: Molecule/Compound/Ionic Bond/Ion

A
  • Molecule: particle consisting of two or more atoms joined together by chemical bonds
  • Compound: when atoms are of different elements
  • Ionic Bond: atoms that give up or take in electrons to achieve a stable outer shell
  • Ion: atoms or molecules that have either positive or negative charge
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12
Q

Define: Covalent Bond/Polar Covalent Bond/Non Polar Covalent Bond

A
  • Covalent Bond: electron sharing bond between atoms/the sharing of electrons between atoms results in each atom having a maximally filled outermost shell of electrons
  • Polar Covalent Bond: pair of electrons is unequally shared between two atoms
  • Non-Polar Covalent Bond: equal share of electrons between two atoms
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13
Q

Define: Isomer/Isotope/Monomer/Polymer

A
  • Isomer: ions or molecules with identical formulas but distinct structures
  • Isotopes: different atomic forms of the same element, varying only in the number of neutrons they contain
  • Monomer: a molecule that can be bonded to other identical molecules to form a polymer
  • Polymer: a substance that has a molecular structure consisting chiefly or entirely of a large number of similar units bonded together
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14
Q

Define: Macromolecule/Catalyst/Hydrogen Bond/Enzyme

A
  • Macromolecule: a molecule containing a very large number of atoms, such as a protein, nucleic acid, or synthetic polymer
  • Catalyst: a substance that increases the rate of a chemical reaction without itself undergoing any permanent chemical change
  • Hydrogen Bond: weakest of the bonds/attraction between seperate molecules
  • Enzyme: are both proteins and biological catalysts. Catalysts accelerate chemical reactions
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15
Q

Use The Periodic Table to Diagram an Atom

A

*to find number of neutrons subtract atomic number from atomic mass

  • Atomic #: number of protons (determines what element it is)
  • Atomic Mass: protons + neutrons
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16
Q

How are atoms constructed/what are their components?

A
  • atoms are the smallest units of any element that retains the physical and chemical properties of that element
  • atoms are composed of electrons(-) , protons(+) , neutrons (neutral)
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17
Q

Location of Components on Atoms/ How and Why do Atoms Form Bonds?

A
  • protons and neutrons are tightly bound together in nucleus/ electrons orbit the nucleus
  • atoms form bonds to form molecules

chemical bond: interacting with one or more atoms to fill its outermost shell

Types of Chemical Bonds

  • covalent bond:sharing electrons to fill outermost shell (strongest chemical bonds)
  • ionic bond: bond between two oppositely charged ions
  • hydrogen bond: bond between oppositely charged regions of molecules that contain covalently bonded hydrogen atoms (weakest)
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18
Q

What is the difference between bond polarity and molecular polarity?

A

The difference between Bond and Molecular Polarity is that bond polarity is the difference of electronegativity between electrons being bonded, and molecular polarity is the sum of these differences, in electronegativity.

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19
Q

Polar/Non-Polar Covalent Bonds Between Atoms

A
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20
Q

Molecule w/ Partial - & Partial + charges

A

*look up video on how to do so

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21
Q

What are the basic properties of water? Why are these important to life? How do hydrogen bonds influence these properties?

A
  • liquid at room temperature (due to H bonds, can break down weak hydrogen bonds in this temp. range)
  • universal solvent for polar molecules( polar molecules=hydrophilic, non-polar molecules= hydrophobic
  • cohesion
  • high heat of vaporization
  • frozen water is less dense(repeating pattern of hydrogen bonds forms between adjacent water molecules)

-

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22
Q

pH Scale W/ Acidic, Basic, and Neutral Regions/ How does H+ change with pH?

A
  • [H+] is less abundant in basic and more abundant in acidic
  • [OH-] is more abundant in basic and less abundant in acidic
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23
Q

What is a buffer & how does it work?

A

Buffers: chemicals that resist pH changes by taking up excess H+ or releasing H+

-Help maintain pH

Ex.)

H + HCO3 - ——-> H2CO3

hydrogen bicarbonate carbonic acid

ion

24
Q

What are the four major classes of macromolecules found in living things?/What are they made of?

A
  • carbohydrates: Energy Storage- Monosaccharides(simple sugars) carbon/hydrogen/oxygen structure , Polysaccharides (linking simple sugars) Monosaccharides (dehydration synthesis)
  • lipids: are hydrophobic Triglycerides are fats (1 glycerol &3 fatty acids)/Phopspholipids are modified lipids/primary structural component of cell membranes (1 glycerol & 2 fatty acids)
  • proteins: constructed of amino acids (proteins have unique 3D structures)
  • nucleic acid: store genetic info-DNA & RNA (constructed of nucleotides)
25
Q
A
26
Q

What is Dehydration Synthesis/Hydrolysis?

A
  • Dehydration Synthesis (condensation reaction): macromolecules built inside the cell/ requires energy/ smaller molecules called subunits are joined by covalent bonds(sharing of electron pairs)/each time a subunit is added the equivalent of a water molecule is removed
  • Hydrolysis: breakdown of macromolecules using water/ the equivalent of a water molecule is added each time a covalent bond between single subunits in the chain is broken (reverse of dehydration synthesis)
27
Q

What is a functional group?

A

-a group of atoms responsible for the characteristic reactions of a particular compound.

28
Q

Four Different Levels of Protein Structure

A
  • Primary: linear sequence
  • Secondary: orientation in space
  • Tertiary: twisting and folding into 3D shape
  • Quaternary: two or more polypeptide chains linked together
29
Q

Configuration and Properties of a Phospholipid/Why are Phospholipids Important?

A
  • molecule of glycerol as the backbone and two fatty acid tails
  • one end of the molecule is polar (dissolves in water) and the other end (the two fatty acid tails) is neutral and does not dissolve in water
  • Phospholipids are important because they are the primary structural component of cell membranes
30
Q

Components, Structure, Function of RNA & DNA

A

RNA: contains the instructions for producing proteins/shorter single strand of RNA nucleotides representing the code for one or more proteins

DNA: contains the intructions for producing RNA/ composed of two long strands of nucleotides (molecular subunits) intertwined into a double helix

31
Q

What is ATP/ Why is it Important?

A

ATP: cell energy/universal energy source for cells

-anytime a cell needs energy for virtually any function it can break the bond between the outermost two phosphate groups of an ATP molecule

32
Q

Define cell/organelle

A

Cell: the smallest structure that shows all the characteristics of life

Organelle: one of the many small cellular structures that perform specific functions for the cell as a whole

33
Q

What is the Cell Doctrine?

A
  1. ) all living things are composed of cells
  2. ) a single cell is the smallest unit that exhibits all of the characteristics of life
  3. ) all cells come from pre-existing cells
34
Q

How are Cells Organized?

A

-all living things are classified as either eukaryotes or prokaryotes depending on their internal organization

35
Q

What are the structures in an animal cell/function?

A
  • plasma membrane (outer covering of the cell)
  • nucleus (membrane bound info. center)
  • cytoplasm (fluid within membrane)
  • organelles (membrane bound structures with specialized function)
  • all cells must gather raw materials, excrete wastes, make macromolecules, and grow and reproduce
36
Q

How does an animal cell (eukaryote) differ from a bacterial cell (prokaryote)?

A

-bacterial cells have no nucleus and lack most of the organelles found in eukaryotes

37
Q

What are the three domains of life?

A
  • Eukaryotes
  • Prokaryotes
  • Archaea: type of prokaryote
38
Q
A
39
Q

Different Types of Microscopes

A
  • Light Microscope (LM): 1000x/ view living specimens
  • Transmission Electron Microscope (TEM): 100,000x/ internal details of cell structure
  • Scanning Electron Microscope (SEM): 100,000x/ 3D view of cell surface
40
Q

How are plasma membranes constructed in a cell?/ What macromolecules are found in the membrane?

A
  • The fundamental structure of the membrane is the phospholipid bilayer, which forms a stable barrier between two aqueous compartments. In the case of the plasma membrane, these compartments are the inside and the outside of the cell
  • According to the accepted current theory, known as the fluid mosaic model, the plasma membrane is composed of a double layer (bilayer) of lipids, oily substances found in all cells.
  • Phospholipids: polar head and nonpolar tail
  • Cholesterol: makes membrane more rigid
  • Protein: means of transport thorugh membrane
  • Carbohydrates: recognition for cells and organisms
41
Q

Define Active Transport/Passive Transport/Diffusion/Facilitated Transport

A
  • Active Transport: cell moves against its concentration gradient/requires ATP or other source/requires membrane protein
  • Passive Transport: transports a molecule without requiring the cell to expend energy/ high to low concentration
  • Diffusion: movement of a molecule from a region of high concentration to a region of low concentration
  • Facilitated Transport: passive transport of a substance into or out of a cell along a concentration gradient/requires a carrier protein
42
Q

Define Osmosis/Sodium Potassium Pump

A
  • Osmosis: diffusion of water across a selectively permeable membrane
  • Sodium Potassium Pump: active transport protein of the plasma membrane that simultaneously transports three sodium ions out of the cell and two potassium ions in (important for maintaining cell volume and for generating the resting membrane potential
43
Q

Which type of transport requires ATP energy?

A

-Active Transport

44
Q

Endocytosis & Exocytosis

A

Endocytosis: brings substances into the cell

-form membrane bound vesicle/ some vesicles have receptors on their surface that bind only to certain specific molecules/others are nonselective engulfing whatever is in the extracellular fluid

Exocytosis: expels substances from the cell

-substance contained in membranous vesicle which fuses with membrane releasing cell into external environment

45
Q

What is a receptor protein?/What does it trigger?

A

Receptor Protein: transmission of info to and from cell

  1. ) signaling molecule approaches receptor protein embedded in cell membrane
  2. ) bind to specific recptor site/ triggers a series of biochemical events that causes changes within the cell
  3. ) once signaling molecule detaches from receptor site, the reaction stops
46
Q

Hypertonic, Hypotonic, & Isotonic Solutions

A
  • Hypertonic: concentration of solutes higher than the intracellular fluid water diffuses out of the cell and the cells shrink
  • Hypotonic: lower concentration of solutes than inracellular fluid, water enters cell and causes them to swell
  • Isotonic: cells maintain normal volume because concentration of water is the same inside and out
47
Q

Structures Found Inside Cell ( cytosol, peroxisome, centrioles, cytoskeleton)

A
  • Cytosol: semifluid gel material inside the cell
  • Peroxisome: destroys cellular toxic waste
  • Centrioles: microtubular structures/involved in cell division
  • Cytoskeleton: structural framework of the cell
48
Q

Structures Found Inside Cell ( smooth ER, rough ER, golgi, secretory vesicles, ribosomes)

A
  • Smooth ER: primary site of macromolecule synthesis other than proteins
  • Rough ER: primary site of protein synthesis by ribosomes
  • Golgi: refines, packages, and ships macromolecular products
  • Secretory Vesicles: membrane-bound shipping container
  • Ribosomes: site of protein synthesis
49
Q

Structures Found Inside a Cell (plasma membrane, mitochondria, lysosomes, nucleus)

A
  • Plasma Membrane: controls movement of material into and out of cell
  • Mitochondria: produces energy for the cell
  • Lysosomes: digests damaged organelles and debris
  • Nucleus: information center (contains DNA)
50
Q

How do enzymes work?/What is a coenzyme?

A

-enzymes are proteins that act as a biological catalyst to speed up chemical reactions

Coenzyme: a small molecule that assists an enzyme by transporting small molecular groups.

51
Q

Define Active Site/Substrate Product

A

Active Site:a region on an enzyme that binds to a protein or other substance during a reaction

Substrate Product: the ending material of a chemical reaction

52
Q

Process of ATP production through cellular respiration:

A
  1. ) Glycolysis: the six carbon glucose molecule is split into two 3-carbon pyruvate molecules. Energy is required to get the process started
  2. ) The Preparatory Step: In preperation for the citric acid cycle, pyruvate enters a mitochondrion. A series of chemical reactions yields a two-carbon molecule called acetyl CoA, plus some energy
  3. ) The Citric Acid Cycle: an Acetyl CoA molecule is broken down completely by mitochondrial enzymes, and its energy is released. Most of the energy is captured by certain high-energy electron transport molecules
  4. ) The Electron Transport System: most of the energy derived from the original glucose molecule is used to phophorylate ADP, producing high-energy ATP
53
Q

What is NADH/FADH2?

A

NADH: product of glycolysis and Krebs Cycle

FADH2: product of Krebs Cycle

-The role of NADH and FADH2 is to donate electrons to the electron transport chain. They both donate electrons by providing an hydrogen molecule to the oxygen molecule to create water during the electron transport chain

54
Q

What is fermentation?

A

Fermentation: Fermentation is an anaerobic process in which energy can be released from glucose even though oxygen is not available. Fermentation occurs in yeast cells, and a form of fermentation takes place in bacteria and in the muscle cells of animals.

55
Q

How many ATP are made during cellular respiration vs. fermentation?

A

cell respiration= 38 ATP

fermentation= 2 ATP

56
Q
A