Human and animal physiology Flashcards
1
Q
What is the function of cartilage rings in the tracheal wall and why are they not fully closed?
A
Function = structural integrity
They are not fully closed so they can expand when you breathe in deeply
2
Q
What is the function of the atrium and function of the ventricle?
A
Atrium receives blood in the heart
Ventricle pumps blood
3
Q
What is the function of the chordae tendinae?
A
They make sure the valves do not open the wrong way.
4
Q
What is the function of the annulus fibrosus, a sheet of connective tissue between the atria and ventricles?
A
Separation of the atria and ventricles, stopping electricity.
5
Q
Of which embryonic structures can you still find remnants in the adolescent/adult heart?
A
Foramen ovale (hole between atria)
Ductus arteriosus (hole between arteries)
6
Q
What is a possible cause of a myocardial infarction?
A
Blockage in coronary artery
7
Q
Why is the morphology of the bronchiole wall similar to the intestinal wall?
A
Oncology-> the tissue of the bronchiole wall stems from the same place where the intestinal wall was formed.
8
Q
Which spaces doe O2 or CO2 have to pass before it can be taken up in a red blood cell (erythrocyte)?
A
surfactant -> alveolar epithelium -> laminae basales -> endothelium -> lumen
9
Q
What is the function of goblet cells?
A
Production of mucus to protect from pathogens
10
Q
What is the function of surfactant and where is it produced?
A
Surfactant lowers surface tension and is produced in septal cell type 2
11
Q
Where is muscle tissue most prominent in the airway system?
A
Most prominent in trachea and bronchi, relatively the most prominent in bronchi.
12
Q
What part of the autonomic nervous system contracts the airways and which dilates the airways and why?
A
Constriction = parasympathetic nervous system to protect from pathogens
Dilation = sympathetic nervous system to allow more air to enter
13
Q
Which type of muscle is present in the v. pulmonalis and why?
A
Heart muscle tissue, because the origin/ontogeny of the v. pulmonalis lies in the heart.
14
Q
Veins in the extremities have valves that portrude into the lumen of the blood vessel. What is the function of these valves?
A
To make sure the blood only flows one way, the blood pressure in the extremities is the lowest due to gravity.
15
Q
How is the tunica media in the large blood vessels supplied with O2?
A
Capillaries in tunica vestitia transport blood to tunica media and supply it with O2.
16
Q
How is the blood distributed over arteries, veins and capillaries?
A
Arteries 20%
Capillaries 5%
Veins 75 %
17
Q
What is the solubility of O2 in water compared to CO2?
A
20-30 times lower
18
Q
How much O2 and CO2 does the blood contain under gass pressure of 100 mmHg?
A
0.15mmol/L O2
3.0 mmol/L CO2
19
Q
What is the function of villi?
A
Increase surface area of the small intestine for maximum absorption.
20
Q
what is the function of the two muscles layers of the muscularis externa in the small intestine?
A
One pushesh chymus forward, the other contracts.
21
Q
What is the difference between a goblet cell and an entero endocrine cell?
A
Goblet cell secretes mucus
Entero endocrine cells secrete peptide hormones and sense nutrients with help of CCK
22
Q
What is the most important function of crypts?
A
Neutralizing of gastric acid
23
Q
What is a paneth cell and where are they located?
A
Paneth cells produce proteins for the immune system. They are located in villi near globlet and entero endocrine cells.
24
Q
Why are tight junctions important in the intestinal barrier?
A
They form a diffusion barrier. The intestines are “outside world” and there can’t be free diffusion between inside and outside world.
25
What is the function of the muscularis mucosa?
Supports movement of the villi and make intestine more narrow so more of the chymus gets in touch with the villi leading to more absorption.
26
In which part of the intestine does the ductus of the exocrine pancreas end up and why?
Duodenum, to support the partial protein digestion of the food.
27
What stimulates secretion of digestive enzymes by the exocrine pancreas?
CCK is secreted in respons to fat and protein.
Protease, lipase, amylase, secretin in response to acid. HCO3- (Bicarbonate) makes the PH increase
28
Which blood vessels are responsible for blood supply of the liver and why is this construction important?
Vena portae hepatis (leverpoortader), arteria hepatis communis. A lot of blood is needed in the liver.
Hepatic artery and hepatic portal vein filter out trash.
29
Which blood vessel in the liver transports nutrients to hepatocytes?
Central vein
30
Why are sinusoid capillaries fenestrated?
To filter out big nutrients
31
what is the flow direction of the blood and bile in a liver lobe?
Blood flows inwards to the liver lobe, bile flows outward of the liver lobe
32
Why do liver cells contain RER (rough endoplasmatic reticulum) and SER (smooth endoplasmatic reticulum)?
RER is for protein production
SER is for lipid and hormone synthesis
33
What are endocrine and exocrine functions of hepatocytes?
Endocrine: Secrete growth factors and plasmo proteins
Exocrine: Secretes bile
34
What type of cell-junction is important in the construction of bile capillaries and why?
Tight junctions, they form a secure barrier so bile has to go through the capillaries.
35
What happens during the P peak, the QRS comlex and the T peak in an ECG?
P= SA node is activated, arterial depolarisation
QRS= ventricular depolarisation
T= repolarisation
36
How do CO and NO2 interact with hemoglobin and how do they prevent the proper binding of O2 to hemoglobin?
CO has a higher affinity for hemoglobin, so less O2 will have the chance to bind
NO2 oxidises Fe2+ to Fe3+ making hemoglobin no longer functional (This is a non reversible process, new blood cells must be created)
37
What is colloid osmotic pressure?
Attraction of water by amount of dissolved protein in blood
38
Why does systolic blood pressure increase during exercise?
More O2 is needed in the muscles
39
How is diastolic blood pressure increased?
Vasoconstriction
40
What is hyperemia?
Low O2 and high CO2 concentration in the blood or element of the body
41
Where is creatine produced and what is it for?
Creatine is produced in the liver, converted to creatine phosphate which is stored in muscles (ATP storage)
42
What are synapomorhpic (shared between different species) traits of a pig?
Uterus, nipples, hair, umbilical chord, placenta, mammary glands, urigenital opening, placenta
43
What is the function of membrana nictitans?
It is a 3rd eyelid which is see through, pigs need it to see when they dig in the dirt
44
Why do pigs have reduced function of the clavicle?
For improved movement and running
45
Why are there many lymph nodes near the intestines?
To protect from the pathogens inside the 'outside world' of the intestine
46
What is the function of bile?
Emulsification of fats, alkanisation to balance the PH.
47
Why is a gall bladder necessary?
To have a reserve of bile in case a big meal is eaten
48
What is the most important secretion into the gastrointestinal track and what is it for?
Mucus. it protects the stomach wall, it dilutes the food, it lubricates the chymus, it decreases inflammation
49
What is the difference between a pig and a human colon?
Humans do not have a colon spiralis. In pigs the cecum is longer pigs need longer intestines for fermentation.
50
What is the function of the jejunum and ileum?
Absorption of nutrients, digestion
51
What is the function of the colon?
water absorption, storage and fermentation
52
What is the direction of bloodflow in the a. umbilicalis?
To the mother pig, away from the heart of the piglet.
53
What is the direction of bloowflow in the v. umbilicalis?
To the heart of the piglet
54
What is the function of the kidneys and adrenal glands?
kidneys: Filtering, osmoregulation
adrenal glands: hormone production (adrenaline, noradrenaline, steroid hormones)
55
what is the function of spermatozoa and accompanying fluids?
Spermatozoa and fluids are necessary for sperm to survive in the vagina
56
What is the function of the bulbo urethral gland? (cowpers gland)
Produces alkalic fluid for sperm to survive inside the relatively sour vagina
57
What is the function of the prostate gland?
Moisture production
58
What is the function of the seminal vesical?
holds fructose, citrate & phosphate to facilitate energy for movement
59
What is the funciton of the prostaglandius
Stimulation of the female system, it represses the immune system of the female so the sperm cells are not killed. it also produces enzymes that prevent the sperm from clotting
60
How is the egg cell transported to the oviduct post ovulation? What route does the egg cell take after fertilisation?
The egg cell goes from the ovary to the oviduct through infendibulum, fimbrae infendibulum catch and guide egg cell to the oviduct
ovary -> oviduct -> uterus
61
What changes in position and texture take place in the cervix during ovulation and why?
Cervix moves caudally further to the vagina. Muscle tension of the cervix decreases.
Slime production increases.
62
Which muscles are used for calm breathing, which nerve triggers these muscles?
Inspiration: diaphragm
Expiration: gravity
Nerve = frenicus
63
What muscles are used for heavy breathing?
Inspiration: Neck muscles
Expiration: internal intercostal muscles, abdominal muscles
64
Why is the diaphragm not fully muscle?
There is no muscle around the esophagus because that would lead to a danger of constriction
65
To which venous system do the truncus sympaticus and nervous fagus belong?
Truncus symphaticus -> symphatic nervous system (autonomous)
nervous fagus -> parasymphatic nervous system (sensory)
66
What is the function of the thymus? Is the thymus present an entire lifetime?
The thymus matures T-lymphocytes until adulthood.
After this the thymus slowly disappears, it will be gone when the human is around 75 years of age
67
What structures/valves close after birth?
Foramen ovale
Ductus arteriosus
68
What is the difference between serum and plasma?
Serum is plasma without coagulation factor
69
How is the breathing trigger created?
High CO2 concentration causes the PH in the blood vessels to drop, leading to a trigger to breathe again.
70
Is anaerobic fermentation more or less efficient than aerobic fermentation, by how much?
More efficient.
Anaerobic fermentation gives 2 ATP molecules per glucose molecule, Aerobic fermentation gives 36 ATP molecules per glucose molecule
71
What is continuous respiration, what is an example of this?
Breathing through the skin like the flatworm.
72
Does the arterial or the outside environment have a higher O2 concentration?
Outside environment.
73
What is external respiration and what group uses this?
Vertebrates breathe with their Lungs/gills and or skin
74
What is internal respiration?
Exchange of gasses between cells and surrounding body fluid
75
What is cellular respiration?
Conversion of O2+ C6H12O6 to ATP
76
What does a respiratory epithelium need?
large + moist surface area
thin epithelium
highly permeable
highly vascularised
77
What is Ficks law?
D= k * A * deltaP/d
D= amount of diffused particles
k= constant factor (eg permeability barrier. water 2.5 * 10^-9 air 1.95 * 10^-5)
A= surface area
deltaP= difference in O2 concentration
d= distance/thickness of respiratory membrane
78
Why do fish have thick respiratory epithelia? Is this the case for all fish?
Low metabolism fish need thicker respiratory epithelia to withstand the force of the water.
High metabolism fish do not
79
How much of their BMR do fish use for respiration?
20%
80
What is buccal respiration?
Muscle enlarge buccal (mouth) activity while operculum stays shut. Breathing by forcing water over the gills through the mouth.
81
What is RAM ventilation?
Water is rammed across gills through mouth
82
How do aquatic and terrestrial animals breathe?
Diffusion of oxygen across body surface.Ho
83
What are the lungs of amphibians like, how do they breathe?
Amphibians have tube like lungs with small surface area. Their lungs fill by increasing air pressure with buccal opening.
84
Do reptiles have a diaphragm?
no
85
What types of lung cells do mammals have? And what does the one that differs from other animals do?
Pneumocyte 1 and pneumocyte 2. Pneumocyte 2 produces superfactant
86
What is the function of superfactant?
decreasing alveolar surface tension to prevent collapsing
87
What is apnea?
the stopping of breathing for a longer period of time for example for hibernation
88
How many hemoglobin molecules does one red blood cell have?
270 million
89
What is the difference between mammalian erythrocytes and bird erythrocytes?
Mammalian erythrocytes are enucleated, bird erythrocytes are not. This makes mammalian erythrocytes smaller than bird erythrocytes.
90
Do birds have a constant lung volume, how?
yes, there is continuous gas exchange
91
How is O2 absorbed into the human bloodstream?
It is solved into alveolar fluid which is then absorbed by the blood.
92
Why can eukaryote cells only survive in aqueous environments?
-to maintain electrolyte equilibrium
-to make sure proteins stay assembled
-to support the integrity of the lipid bilayer (membrane)
92
How many times a day is alveolar fluid changed?
20 times per day
93
What happens to the lungs when free air is present in intrapleural space?
The intrapleural pressure increases, causing the lung to collapse
94
What happens bronchodilation, what hormone influences it and what nervous system is involved?
Decrease in resistance, triggered by adrenaline. The sympathetic nervous system is involved.
95
What happens in bronchoconstriction, what signalling molecule influences it and what nervous system is involved?
Increase of resistance, triggered by histamine. The parasympathetic nervous system is involved.
96
What is lung compliance?
Measure of the lungs' ability to stretch and expand
97
What does lung compliance depend on?
Elasticity of the lungs
surface in alveoli (hydrogen bonds between water molecules makes expansion of alveoli more difficult)
98
What is inside alveoli?
Air saturated water with a small layer of water on the luminar side.
Hydrogen bonds between water molecules to create pressure in order to narrow the alveoli
99
What is the law of LaPlace?
P=2T/r
P = pressure
T = surface tension
r = radius
"If two bubbles have the same surface tension the smaller bubble will have the highest pressure)
100
How does surfactant decrease surface tension?
Fosfolipids in air interface disrupt the hydrogen bonds in water
101
What is the respiratory quotient?
CO2/O2, is dependant on substrate
102
How much O2 and CO2 is consumed and produced during homeostasis of the body?
250 mL O2 consumption
200 mL CO2 production
103
What does the air contain when breathing in? What is the pressure of this air?
It is fully saturated with water, in dead space it is mixed with alveolar air PO2 goes down while PCO2 goes up. At 37 degrees celcius in rest the pressure is 47 mmHg
104
What is the pressure gradient of oxygen in the pulmonary, tissues and system?
Pulmonary: diffusion -> equilibrium PO2= 100mmHg PCO2=40mmHG
Tissues: O2 consumption, CO2 production PO2 lowers PCO2 goes up
System: diffusion -> equilibrium PO2=40mmHG PCO2=46mmHG
105
Why is hemoglobin needed?
Gasses are not well soluble in plasma, hemoglobin is needed to take up O2
106
What is EPO, where is it produced and why?
erytroprotein. It is produced in the kidneys in respons to the O2 concentration in blood. It stimulates red blood cell production in the bone marrow.
107
How is CO2 transported from tissue into erythrocyte? How is it transported from the erythrocyte to alveoli?
5-6% dissolves in the blood
5-8% attaches to hemoglobin
80-90% is dissolved as HCO3-
The transport from erythrocyte to alveoli happens the same way as the transport from tissue to erythrocyte, but in reverse.
108
How is CO2 converted into HCO3-?
CO2 enters the erythrocyte where it becomes H2CO3, this falls apart to H+ and HCO3-
H+ binds to hemoglobin and HCO3 goes into the blood plasma
109
What is the PH of the blood in homeostasis?
7,40 with a deviance of 0,02
110
When do we speak of acidosis?
When the PH of the blood is lower than 7,35
111
When do we speak of alkalosis
When the PH is higher than 7,45
112
What causes acidosis or alkalosis?
Wrong ratio of ventilation and metabolism. PCO2 has to be constant for the PH to be constant
113
What happens when alveolar ventilation of arterial blood increases or decreases?
Increase -> PO2 goes up, PCO2 goes down
Decrease -> PO2 goes down, PCO2 goes up
114
What are chemoreceptors and what do they do?
They are receptors that monitor the PO2 and PH
115
What do peripheal chemoreceptors do and where are they?
Peripheal chemoreceptors lie in the carotic artery. They react to PH by releasing H+ when the PCO2 goes up and a very low PO2 (<60mmHG)
116
What do central chemo receptors do and where are they?
Central chemo receptors lie in he medulla oblongata brainstem. They react to PH by releasing H+ when the PCO2 goes up, but not to PO2.
117
What causes hyperventilation?
- Low O2 levels in the air
- exercise
- stress (exact mechanism is unknown)
118
What happens when you hyperventilate?
CO2 concentration in arterial blood goes down causing alkalosis
119
What happens in low osmolarity?
Cells explode
120
What happens in high osmolarity?
Cells shrink
121
Why do human cells not explode in the pool or shrink in the sea?
Our skin functions as a diffusion barrier which does not let water through
122
What are osmoconformers?
species that adjust to the osmolarity of the environment
123
What are osmoregulators?
species that keep a constant osmolarity no matter what environment. This costs more energy than osmoconformation
124
what animals are osmoconformers?
Shark, hagfish, jellyfish, coelacanth
125
What animals are osmoregulators?
Humans, lamprey, goldfish, toadfish, salmon
126
What is the difference in mOsm/L between fresh- and seawater fish?
100 mOsm/L
freshwater fish have 300 mOsm/L seawater fish have 400 mOsm/L
127
What is eurykaline?
species with a broad range of mOsm environments where they can survive such as the bull shark, tilapia, shore crab
128
What is stenohaline?
species with a small range of mOsm environments where they can survive such as most fish and the spider crab
129
Why can fish usually not be osmoregulators?
They need a thin and permeable membrane for their respiration, there is only one cell layer between the outside world and their bloodstream. This layer lets through a lot o water making osmoregulation difficult.
130
How do fish get rid of excess water or salt in their system?
Via the kidneys, gills and intestine
131
what are different ways groups of species get rid of excess salt in their system?
Shark: rectal gland
Marine teleosts: Ionocytes (gills)
Marine turtles: Tear glands
Marine crocodiles: Tongue glands
Birds: salt glands near eyes that leak along their beak
132
What are the functions of the kidneys in vertebrates?
- filtration (sieve function of glomerulus)
- reabsorption
- secretion
133
What is the loop of Henle and do all kinds of species have it?
A loop from the kidney to the urinal system. Reabsorption of water happens here so the pee has a higher osmolarity than the blood stream.
Only mammals and birds have a loop of Henle.
134
What does the glomerulus of a fish in a hypotonic environment look like, does a lot or a little water get excreted?
The glomerulus of a fish in a hypotonic environment is large, a lot of water needs to be excreted
135
What does the glomerulus of a fish in a hypertonic environment look like, does a lot or a little water get excreted?
The glomerulus of a fish in a hypertonic environment is small, some fish in hypertonic environments do not have a glomerulus at all. This is for maximum water retention.
136
What do fish in hypertonic environments secrete?
MgSO4
137
What do fish in hypotonic environments absorb?
NaCl
138
What are the two types of chloride cells and what is the main characteristic of a chloride cell?
- type 1 = ion secretion in seawater
- type 2 = ion uptake in freshwater
the main characteristic of a chloride cell is that they are rich in mitochondria
139
What is prolactine for in fish?
During sea- to freshwater migration prolactine:
- reduces epithelial permeability
- increases mucus production
- increases freshwater ionocyte (uptake)
140
What is prolactine for in mammals?
- milk production
- reproduction
141
What fish need pituitary and prolactine in order to be able to migrate from sea- to freshwater and what fish do not?
salmon and eel do not need prolactine and a piruitary
Killifish and tilapia do need prolactine and a pituitary
142
How do growth hormone and insuline like growth factor influence the osmolarity or a fish?
In a hypotonic environment growth hormone induces the size/number of ionocytes via secretion
Insuline like growth factor upregulates transport proteins
143
What hormones are involved with ionocytes and gut?
- renin/angiotensin 2
- Vasolosin (vasopressin in mammals)
- Natriuretic peptide family ANP
- Isotocy (Oxytocin)
- Cortisol ('aldosterone')
144
Do fish have aldosterone?
No, they only have cortisol, but cortisol does bind to aldosterone receptors so fish do have aldosterone receptors
145
How is osmolarity and PH linked?
Na+ and Cl- transport is linker to H+ and HCO3- transport
146
What happens during precipitation?
Insoluable particles form in fluid and sink
147
How can fish get rid of Mg2+ and Ca2+ in their system?
It can be precipitated due to HCO3- and disposed of in the feces
148
How is nitrogen waste formed during digestion?
Digestion of proteins, fats, carbohydrates and nucleic acids.
149
What are 3 different forms nitrogen can be disposed of in the digestion system and what species use what kinds and why?
- ammonia (very toxic)
- urea (a little toxic)
- uric acid (not toxic)
fish dispose of nitrogen in the form of ammonia, they are submerged in water so the ammonia easily diffuses out of their system
mammals dispose of nitrogen as urea in their urine
birds dispose of nitrogen as uric acid
150
What tubes pierce the diaphragm?
- Esophagus
- vena cava posterior
- aorta
151
What changes in urine of people who eat a lot of meat?
- increased amount of NH4+
- increased amount of urea
- no changes in salt concentration
152
How much of a behavioral trait that has been selected for is genetically inherited?
A behavioral trait that has been selected for is at least partially genetically inherited.
153
What characterizes homologous structures?
Homologous structures appear in the embryos of related animal species in a similar place during development.
154
What are functions of the chorda?
- The chorda prevents the body from shortening when muscles contract
- It functions as a sort of hanger for all organs
155
Assume that a new species of aquatic chordates is discovered.
The animal has bone plates in its skin, it lacks paired fins and feeds by means of suspension feeding.
Which of the following traits can probably be observed as well?
Absence of jaws
156
What is the tripartite brain?
The triune brain is a model of the evolution of the vertebrate forebrain and behavior
157
For macronutrients different energetic values are given. For proteins these are: 23,6 kJ/g, 21,9 kJ/g en 17 kJ/g. To which energetic value corresponds 17 kJ/g?
Metabolizable energy
158
What happens when you drink distilled (demi) water?
Your cells swell due to decreased osmolarity of the extracellular environment
159
What hormones and structures are involved in kidney regulation via the juxtaglomerular apparatus?
- prostaglandines
- macula densa
160
Which of these structures within the chest are fused together?
Which of these structures within the chest are fused together?
161
How is it possible that a flying insect possesses an open circulation system?
How is it possible that a flying insect possesses an open circulation system?
162
Which of the following increases during heavy exercise?
HCO3- concentration of blood
163
How can fitness be quantified on the genotype level?
By comparing the frequency of a certain genotype in a population between two consecutive generations
164
What does the vital capacity consist of?
- the inspiratory reserve volume
- the expiratory reserve volume
- the tidal volume
165
What is the definition of metabolism?
All chemical reactions in the body which are involved in energy storage and usage
166
What is catabolism?
Glucose oxidation to produce energy
167
What is anabolism?
Building complex molecules for energy storage
168
What is glucogenesis?
Storage of energy in glycogen
169
What is Gluconeolysis?
Liberation of energy by breaking down of glycogen to glucose.
170
What is lipolysis?
Liberation of energy by turning triglycerol into glycerol and fatty acids through hydrolisis
170
What is gluconeogenesis?
Liberation of energy by formation of glucose from for example pyruvate
171
What is lipogenesis?
Storage of energy by combining glucose and glycerol into fats
172
What is Proteolysis?
Liberation of energy by breaking down proteins into amino acids
173
What is Ketogenesis?
Production of ketone bodies by breaking down fatty acids
174
What is thermogenesis?
generating body heat by oxidative phosphorilation (mitochondrial uncoupling) or muscle contraction
175
What is convection?
heat exchange to moving gas or liquid
176
What is conduction?
Heat exchange between contacting objects
177
From the inside out, what layers does the gastrointestinal track have?
lumen
mucosa
submucosa
muscularis externa
serosa
178
What are the 6 sections of the stomach anatomy and what do they do?
esophagus
cardia -> entry to stomach
fundus -> stretchy part
corpus -> main part of stomach for digestion
pylorus -> sphincter to duodenum
179
What type of compensation is made in case of respiratory alkalosis?
Renal compensation
180
What type of compensation is made in case of respiratory acidosis?
Renal compensation
181
What type of compensation is made in case of metabolic alkalosis?
Respiratory compensation
182
What type of compensation is made in case of metabolic acidosis?
Respiratory compensation
183
Why would an animal have a very long loop of Henle, in what type of animals is this observed?
In order to make Hyperosmotic, Hypertonic urine, this is seen in marine mammals
184
What % of the body's weight are the kidneys, how much of the cardiac output do the kidneys receive?
1% of body weight is the kidneys
20% of the cardiac output goes to the kidneys
185
What is the function of the kidneys?
Homeostatic regulation of water and eloctrolytes
186
How do kidneys execute their function?
- Regulation of plasma volume
- regulation of H+ concentration in plasma
- Regulation of plasma osmolarity
- Regulation of plasma concentration
- Excretion of waste products
- Hormonal release of EPO
187
What parts of the nephron (functional part of the kidney) does the urine pass?
1 Glomerulus
2 Bowmans Capsule
3 Proximal convoluted tube
4 Proximal straight tube
5 Loop of Henle
6 Distal convoluted tube
7 Connecting tubule
8 Collecting duct
9 Minor calyx
188
What are the two nephron classes and what are their functions?
- cortical nephron -> formation of urine
- Jaxtamedullary nephron -> formation of urine and formation of the osmotic gradient
189
What supplies the nephrons with blood?
Afferent arteriole which splits into vasa recta and peritubular capillaries that are positioned around and inside nephrons
190
Where are peritubular capillaries and what is theri function?
They sit around the kidney tubuli
The function of the peritubular capillaries is exchange during reabsorption and secretion
191
Where is the vasa recta positioned and what is its function?
The vasa recta sits around the loop of Henle
The function of the vasa recta is the regulation of the osmotic gradient in the medulla
192
Where does filtration happen in the kidneys?
In the glomerulues, plasma gets filtrated and goes out
193
Where in the kidneys does absorption take place?
In the tubules
In the loop of Henle
In the collecting duct
194
Where in kidneys does secretion take place?
In the tubules
195
What are the 3 layers of the glomerular membrane?
- epithelial cell (podocytes, proteins that surround the blood vessels of the glomerulus. They are porous)
- basal lamina (extracellular matrix)
- Capillaries (fenestrated endothelium)
196
What is glomerular filtration driven by?
Hydrostatic pressure of the glomerulus
197
What influences reabsorption?
Osmotic pressure
198
What is the formula for filtration pressure?
Pgc-(Pbc+PIgc)
Pgc = hydrostatic (blood) pressure
PIbc = colloid osmotic pressure gradient due to proteins in plasma but not in Bowmans capsule
Pbc = fluid pressure created by fluid in Bowmans capsule
199
What is the definition of the glomerular filtration rate?
The volume of filtered plasma per time unit
200
What is the filtration fraction?
The percentage of plasma that is filtered out
GFR/plasma flow rate) * 100%
201
What is the filtered load?
The amount of a specific solute that enters the Bowmans capsule
GFX * Px
202
What happens in the afferent arteriole when the MAP increases, what influence does this have on the glomerular capillary pressure and glomerular filtration pressure?
The alveolar smooth muscle stretches
Constriction goes up
Resistance goes up
Glomerular capillary pressure goes up
This has a negative feedback effect causing the glomerular filtration pressure to go up and then down making the Glomerular Filtration Rate go down
203
What does the flomerular apparatus consist of?
- Macula densa
- Granular cells
204
What happens when the glomerular pressure goes up?
A higher volume and amount of salt passes the loop of Henle
This passes the macula densa where the amount of Na+ is sensed
This leads to paracrine secretion (by prostaglandis) of Ca2+
This leads to increase of resistance via contriction to prevent too much blood from going into the glomerulus
205
What is the function of the Renia?
Adosterone (adrenal cortex) -> Na+ reabsorption
ADH (pituary gland) -> H2O reabsorption
206
When is intrinsic regulation possible?
When the MAP is between 80-180 mmHg
207
How is extrinsic regulation activated?
Through sympathetic nervoussystem
208
What happens in the kidney in case of blood loss?
GFR is lowered for water retention
209
How is glucose reabsorbed and how much glucose is reabsorbed?
100% of glucose is reabsorbed (in normal situation) This is done via cotransport with Na+ where glucose is transported against its concentration gradient
210
How much plasma is filtered per day and how much goes to urine and how much is reabsorbed?
180L plasma/day is filtered 1% goes to urine, 99% is reabsorbed
211
When is maximum reabsorption reached?
When all absorption complexes are saturated
212
When will secretion or reabsorption take place?
When excreted solute > filtered solute -> secretion
When excreted solute < filtered solute -> reabsorption
213
What is clearance and how do you calculate it?
Measure for kidney function and relative processing of different solutes expressed in the rate with which dissolved solute is excreted in L/hour
The formula for calculating the clearance is excretion rate/plasma concentration
214
What determines the excretion rate?
- concentration in urine
- concentration in plasma
- production rate of urine
concentration * urine production rate
215
What requirements does solute in the Bowmans capsule need to meet in order to be suitable for calculating the glomerular filtration rate?
- it is filtrated freely
- it is not reabsorbed
- it is not secreted
216
What is hypervolemia
High blood volume by positive water balance
217
What is hypovolemia
Low blood volume by negative water balance
218
What cell-cell connection is important in distal tubules and why?
Tights junctions for regulation of water absorption regulated by ADH
219
What ways is the acid-base balance of the body kept?
1 chemic buffering with HCO3-
2 respiration adapting PO2 by changing alveolar ventilation
3 Kindeys excreting and reabsorbing H+ and HCO3- and regulating absolute plasma concentration (Ratio 1:20)
220
What characterizes macro and micro evolution?
Microevolution -> small changes over a short period of time within a population of small creatures
Macroevolution -> big changes over a longer period of time in bigger creatures not necessarily within one population
221
What are the 5 principles of evolution?
1 perpetual change
2 common descent
3 speciation
4 gradualism
5 natural selection
222
Where can you track perpetual change, how long does a species last on average? (not the horseshoe crab the horseshoe crab was simply too goated that bitch still mf here
Perpetual change is seen in fossils in geological layers, based on this it can be deducted that species usually exist for around 5-10 million years
223
What can be used as evidence of common descent?
Homology
224
What defines a species?
A species is hard to define, but generally two animals belong to the same species if they have a common ancestor, are reproductively compatible and are phenotypically and genotypically similar
225
What leads to the formation of a new species?
Accumulation of gradual changes, quantative changes become qualitative changes
226
What are different concepts of what defines a species?
- Typological species -> species is fixed by phenotype
- Biological -> Reproductive population with specific niche
- Evolution/cohesion -> single lineage ancestor - descent
- Phylogenetic -> Irreducible grouping distinct from other group. Pattern of ancestry and descent is only monophyletic
227
How are species defined pre-mating?
- Allopatric speciation due to geographical isolation
- Behavioral isolation where difference in behavior makes individuals miss mating opportunity (like cicadas who come up to mate in different intervals)
228
How are species defined post-mating?
- Incompatibility of gametes or genitals
- Postzygotic barrier
229
What is vicarant speciation?
Speciation due to random events
230
What is adaptive radiation?
evolution of ecologically diverse species from common ancestor in short interval of geological time
231
What is a ring species?
Ring of species that can mate with the closes species to them in the ring except for the two ends of the ring which do not mate
232
What is the definition of fitness?
Most offspring -> best adapted to the environment at a given time
233
What is a result of sexual selection?
A trait that is not beneficial or even detrimental to survival that does highly increase the chances of mating such as the tail of a peacock
234
What are random and non random causes for evolution?
Random = mutations & genetic drift
Non random = Gene flow & natural selection
235
Does evolution have a goal?
No evolution is the random adaptation to the environment
236
What is Lanarch's theory about evolution, is it viable?
Lanarch's theory about evolution is that individuals change due to their environment within their lifetime altering their phenotype, these adaptations will be passed on to the offspring.
This is not a viable theory. All changes that can be passed on to offspring are already present at birth.
237
What is Darwins theory about evolution, is it viable?
Individuals have beneficial adaptations in their genotype, these 'lucky' individuals will produce more offspring causing the gene frequency of this beneficial adaptation to increase within the population.
This is a viable theory and the one worked with today.
238
What is exaptation?
Utility of structure for role that is not part of evolutionary origin
239
What is a local optimum?
Traits that give the highest fitness and chance of survival in an environment based on evolutionary changes that were made earlier
240
What is taxonomy?
Categorization based on discrete sets
241
What are phenetics?
Taximetrics, classify on overall similarity, usually based on morphology regardless of evolutionary relation
242
What are cladistics?
Organisms organized in groups/glades based on their most recent common ancestor derived from synapomorphic traits
243
What is (sym) plesiomorphy?
Shared ancestral character which do not distinguish a clade from other clade
244
What is synapomorphy?
shared derived characteristics that distinguish a clade from other clades shared by all members of clade
245
What is autapomorhpy?
derived feature unique to taxon
246
What is a taxon or clade?
Subset of species that share derived characters
247
What is a sister group?
Two groups or clades that share a direct common ancestor
248
What is an outgroup?
Phylogenetically close, but not within taxon or case studied
249
What is a cladogram?
Evolutionary tree/branching diagram showing evolutionary relationship among various biological species or entities
250
What is a monophyletic group?
Group that shares a most recent common ancestor with all group members and descendants
251
What is a paraphyletic group?
Similar to monophyletic group, but not all descendants share the most recent common ancestor
252
What is a polyphyletic group?
Does not have a MCA, not really used
253
what is an amnion?
Egg with extra embryonic membrane
254
What is homoplasy?
A structure with the same function due to convergent evolution NOT a sign of common descent
255
What are traits of the pongidae?
They are herbivorous, arboreal and have limited mental capacity
256
Are wings homologous or anologous?
The bones in wings are homologous, the concept of wings itself is analogous
256
What are traits of the homonidae?
They are omnivorous, terrestrial and have expanded mental capacity
257
What are gene paralogs?
Genes that code for different things within the same species
258
What are gene orthologs?
Genes that code for the same thing within a different species
259
What is a phylogenetic tree?
It depicts the amount of time between differentiation of groups and the confidence level of accuracy
260
What is LUCA?
Last universal common ancestor
261
What is LECA?
Last eukaryotic common ancestor
262
How did eukaryotic cells become aerobic, how did cells get chloroplasts?
They engulfed an aerobic bacterium which formed the mitochondria, chloroplasts were formed by eukaryotic cells with a mitochondria engulfing a photosynthetic bacterium
263
What was the evolutionary progression to todays multicellular complex organisms?
Single cell organism -> multicellular -> diploblast -> tripoblast -> quadruploblast
264
What were the changes that took place when multicellular, diploblast, tripoblast and quadruploblast organisms were formed?
Multicellular -> cell differentiation
Diploblast -> Formation of gastrovascular cavity, ectoderm and endoderm
Tripoblast -> formation of archenteron, ectoderm, mesoderm, endoderm
Quadruploblast -> formation of neural crest
265
What is an interesting fact about poriferea (sponges)
They have differentiated cells for different types of labour, but can regrow all celltypes when a part of their body is cut off
266
What are examples of diploblasts?
Placozoa, cnidaria, cteniophora
267
What are differences between cnidaria and cteniophora?
Cnidaria have no anus, but do have myoepithelial cells
Ctenophora have a complete gut and muscle cells
268
What are possible conformations of the mesoderm?
- Acoelomate mesoderm -> mesoderm fills the blastocoel forming spongy connective tissue
- Pseudocoelomate -> mesoderm lines the ectoderm and the blastocoel becomes pseudocoeloom
- Eucoelomate -> mesoderm fills the blastocell and then splits, a true coeloom is formed and the mesoderm lines both the ectoderm and endoderm
269
what are subgroups of Protostomia and the characteristics of the subgroups?
The main shared characteristic of protostomia is that the blastopore forms the mouth and a schizocoelus is formed
subgroups are:
Lophotrochozoa -> have a lophophore (filter feeding hair like tentacles) or trochozoa larvae
Ecdisozoa -> they molt
270
What are platyhelminthes and their characteristics?
flatworms, they are filled with mesoderm and have a gut
271
What are Mollusca?
Gastropoda (snails), bivalvia, cephalopods
272
What are arthropoda?
Myruapoda, chelicerate, crustacea, hexapoda
273
What are nematoda?
Roundworms
274
What are the characteristics of deutrostomia?
- Radial cleavage
- Regulative embryo
- Blastopore becomes anus, mouth forms secundarily
- enterocoelus
275
What are characteristics of echinodermata?
- radial symmetry
- subgroup of deutrostomia echinodermata
276
What are characteristics of hemichordata?
- acorn worms
- subgroup of deutrostomia
- have gill pores
- pterobranchia
277
What are the synapomorphic traits of the chordates?
- notachord
- dorsal nerve chord
- pharyngeal slits
- endostyle
278
What are the 3 groups within chordates?
1 cephalochordate
2 urochordate
3 vertebrate (anything with a vertical column)
279
What is the notachord and what trait did it make possible?
A stiff chord for stabilization and movement, the notachord made it possible for species to have post anal tails. Before the development of the notachord the anus was the end of the animal
280
What are the functions of the endostyle?
- It secretes mucus that filters out the nutrients from the food which when it moves through the intestinal track can get absorbed
- secretion of iodinated proteins, endostyle is the predecessor of the thymus
281
What are neural crest cells for?
They move through the body and make the peripheral nervous system
282
What are some characteristics of amocoetes (lamprey)?
They are vertebrates, they have a brain, a skull and a peripheral nervous system
283
What are the synapomorphic traits of vertebrates?
- Neural crest cells
- cranium/skull
- tripartite brain
- muscular pharynx
- hoxgene duplication
284
What are some traits of the 3 partite brain?
- centralisation of 3 major sense organs
- protection by cranium
- protection of spinal chord by vertebra
- room to expand for the brain
285
What did pharyngeal slits evolve to?
Gills
286
What are the major groups within vertebrates and what are some examples of these groups?
- agnata -> without a jaw, example: hagfish, lamprey
- Ghnatosmata -> with a jaw, example: the other fish, all cartilaginous fish
287
What are synapomorphic traits of Chondrichthyes?
They are cartilaginous fish
- Cartilaginous endoskeleton
- dorsoventrally flattened ventral mouth
- spiracle
- mixipodium or clasper
- placoid scales
288
What are actinorigyii and what are their synapomorhpic traits?
ray finned fish
- bony endoskeleton
- flexible upper jaw (portrusion)
- operculum (gill protection 'lid')
- homoceral tail (top half=bottom half)
- swim bladder or lung
289
What are Sacropterigyii and what are their synapomorphic traits?
lobe finned fish or lung fish
- they have lungs
- lobed fins
- diphyceral tail (tapers to end)
290
Why do you feel no gravity in water?
The gravity is cancelled out/compensated by buoyancy
291
What are synapomorphic traits of tetrapods?
They have 4 legs
they have 2 paired appendages attached to pectoral and pelvic girdle
292
What are the 3 amphibian groups?
- Anura -> without tail
- Caudata -> with tail
- Gymnophiona -> they are tail (snakes)
293
What are the synapomorphic traits of amphibians?
- They repdroduce in water and larvae experience metamorphosis
- They have smooth mucuous skin with little keratin
- Their hearts have 2 atria and 1 ventricle
- Respiration via gills, skin, lungs
- sound transmission via columella (bone)
294
What are the two groups of amniotes?
synapsids -> one hole (temporal fenestrae) in skull
diapsids -> two holes (temporal fenestrae) in skull
295
What is the function of temporal fenestrae?
They leave room for muscles so the brain has more room to grow
296
What are gastric pits for?
They sit in the stomach wall and secrete mucus for protection
297
What do chief cells do and where are they?
They sit inside gastric pits and secrete pepsinogens
298
What is the function of the duodenum?
water and nutrient absorption
299
What are the accessory glands?
- salivary gland
- liver
- pancreas
300
What is the function of the salivary gland?
- producing bicarbonate to buffer acidity
- supporting the function of amylase
- secretes mucus for lubrication
- secrete lysosomes to kill bacteria
301
What is the exocrine and endocrine function of the pancreas?
Endocrine function (islett cells):
- insuline and glucagon secretion
alfa cells -> glucagon beta cells -> insulin
Exocrine function (acinii cells)
- secretion of H2O
- secretion of electrolytes
- secretion of bicarbonate
- secundary secretion of amylase, lipase, protease, nuclease
302
What is the function of the liver?
Production and secretion of bile
303
What happens in the absorptive phase of the liver?
- glucose -> glycagon
- amino acids -> fatty acids
- triglyceride + cholesterol -> lipoproteins
304
What happens in the postabsorptive phase of the liver?
- glycogen -> glucose
- fatty acids -> ketone bodies
- gluconeogenesis
305
What does amylase do?
Breaks down bonds between sugars
306
what does peptidase do?
breaks down bonds between amino acids
307
what does lipase do?
Breaks down bonds between fatty acids and glycerol
308
What enzyme is released as a zymogen and what does that mean?
peptidase is released as a zymogen, this means the protein still needs to be activated. HCl or enterokinase activate peptidase
309
How are fats handled during digestion?
- diffusion in enterocytes
- repackaging in triglycerides
- packaging in chylomicrons (lipoproteins)
- exocytosis to interstitual fluid
- uptake in lymphatic system (lacteals)
310
what is the submucosal or meissners plexus for?
excretion of hormones
311
What is the myentric or auerbachs plexus for?
innervating skeletal muscle
312
What are the different phases of digestion and what stimulates them?
- cephalic phase -> CNS stimuli from the head
- gastric phase -> CNS, ENS, endocrine stimuli from stomach
- intestinal phase -> CNS, ENS, endocrine stimuli from intestine
313
What is a foodchain made up of?
Producers -> primary consumers -> secondary consumers -> tertiary consumers
314
What is the definition of a consumer?
Consumers are heterotropic, they cannot produce their own energy so they need to get energy from their food
315
What formula determines which prey/food will be eaten and what is the theory behind it?
E2/TH2 > E1/(Ts1+H1)
If the received energy of prey 2 divided by the handling time of prey 2 is greater than the received energy of prey 1 divided by the handling time of prey 1 plus the search time of prey one prey 2 will be eaten
316
What are internal constraints?
sickness, pregnancy etc
317
What are external constraints?
environment, temperature, presence/absence of food
318
What is autotrophy?
When an organism is self feeding, makes food from organic molecules
319
What are the different types of autotrophy?
- photo autotrophy -> gets energy from photosynthesis
- chemo autotrophy -> gets energy from chemosynthesis
320
What are the two types of decomposers and what do they do?
Detrivores: ingest non living organic matter
Saprotrophs: Lives in or on non-living organic matter, secretes digestive enzyme into it and absorbs the digested matter
321
What are the names of the 4 parts of a cow stomach?
rumen/ main stomach
reticulum
omasum
abomasum
322
What is the bush border?
In the small intestine, made up out of microvilli
323
What happens when the small intestine is almost fully empty?
Fasting waves cause the intestine to contract, making sure the intestine is as empty as possible
324
What is the akkermansia muciniphila?
it is a bacterium in your gut, it eats mucus, protects from harmful bacteria
325
What does the accomodatus microbiome do?
it is a bacterium in your gut, it absorbs water, electrolytes, volatile fatty acids and vitamins
326
What is the pathway blood generally takes?
Heart -> artery/arteriole -> capillary
327
What are the main characteristics of an artery?
It contains mostly oxygen rich blood
It has a flexible wall to withstand high pressure
328
What is the wall of a capillary like?
It is one cell layer thick
329
Why do lymphatic capillaries lie close to blood capillaries?
To absorb tissue waste and dissolve fatty acids in intestines
330
What are the layers of an artery from the inside to the outside?
1 endothelial cell layer
2 elastic membrane
3 circular smooth muscle
4 connective tissue
1,2 tunica intima + thin layer of connective tissue
3 tunica media, consists of elastin and collagen (in arteries this is called elastica externa)
4 tunica adventitia, consists of collagen, elastin and is continuous with connective tissue of surrounding organ/tissue
331
What are the layers of a vein from the inside to the outside?
1 endothelial cell layer
2 circular smooth muscle
3 connective tissue
332
What do pericytes do?
- monitor endothelial maturation
- regulate capillary bloodflow
- maintain blood - brain barrier
- aid in homeostasis
333
What species have what kind of coelom compartment?
1 coelom compartment -> shark, they have a small septum transversum
2 coelom compartments -> salamanders, they also have a pericadial cavity and pleuro peritoneal cavity
3 coelom compartments -> amniotes with associated membranes pleural + cardiac + peritoneal cacvity
334
How do lymph vessels aid in pressure relief>
Lymph vessels take up extra fluid to minimize the pressure increase, this fluid is later taken up by the blood again
335
How do you calculate the cardiac output?
Pressure/resistance
336
What does the sulcus coronarius do?
it creates electrical isolation so the action potentials don't go to the ventricle immediately
337
How many mitochondria do myocardial cells have?
10x more than other muscle cells
338
What is the function of the lymphatic system?
return excess interstitual fluid to circulatory tissue
339
What happens when the hydrostatic pressure is higher than the osmotic pressure?
filtration of fluid out of the capillary
340
What happens when the osmotic pressure is higher than the hydrostatic pressure?
reabsorption into the capillaries and blood
341
What is the function of the cardiovascular system?
- transport of gas, nutrients and waste
- regulation of homeostasis
342
What does the bundle of His do?
it consists of purkinje fibers that goe into the muscle tissue of the ventricle to induce contraction
343
What are the different stages in a heartbeat and what valves are open in which of the stages?
1 ventricular filling -> AV valves are open, semilunar valves are closed
2 isovolumetric contraction -> all valves are shut
3 ventricular ejection -> AV valves are closed, semilunar valves are open
4 Isovolumetric relaxation -> all valves are shut
344
How do you calculate the cardiac output?
heart rate * stroke volume
345
What are the intrinsic and extrinsic ways heart rate is controlled?
Intrinsic control: SA and AV node
Extrinsic control: sympathetic nervous system to make the heart rate go up, parasympathetic nervous system to make the heart rate go down
346
What affects the stroke volume and what hormone influences this?
Contractility influenced by adrenaline, resistance and peripheral resistance
347
What is the frank sterling effect?
Increased volume of the sacromeres of cardiomyocytes widen leading to more/better contraction and a higher stroke volume
348
What is the blood pressure gradient?
Decrease of blood pressure from arteries to veins
349
How does the blood pressure change in the arteries?
Blood pressure in the arteries is high during systole, low during diastole
350
How is the resistance in arterioles regulated?
Intrinsic regulation:
1 increased metabolism; low PO2 and high PCO2 -> active hyperemia -> vasodilation for more blood flow
2 decreased blood flow; low PO2 high PCO2 -> reactive hyperemia -> vasodilation for more bloodflow
3 lower perfusion pressure; less stretchy blood vessels -> vasodilation for more blood flow
Extrinsic regulation:
1 sympathetic nervous system ; noradrenalin -> alfa adrenoreceptor -> vasoconstriction for less blood flow
2 Hormones; Adrenalin -> depending on receptor vasoconstriction (alfa receptor) or vasodilation (beta receptor)
351
Where do baroreceptors lie and what do they do?
Baroreceptors measure the pressure. They lie in aortic arch & carotid sinus
352
What happens when baroreceptors notice an increased pressure?
Increased neurotransmitter to brain -> decreased heartrate
353
What happens when baroreceptors notice a decreased pressure?
Less neurotransmitters to brain -> decreased heartrate
354
What is the net filtration?
filtration pressure - absorption pressure
(Pcap + PIif) - (PIcap + Pip)
355
What happens when too much filtration takes place?
An oedemia forms
356
Where does digestion of carbohydrates start?
In the mouth
357
what happens when there is a low PH in the duodenum?
Secretin is secreted
358
In pigs, are the ducti hepatii and the pancreas connected to the duodenum by two different sphincters?
No
359
What digestion phase is drooling due to the expectation of food?
Cephalic phase
360
what reactions are stimulated by glucagon, cortisol and adrenaline?
Catabolic reactions
361
What is the reason the feeling temperature could be colder than the actual temperature?
Convection
362
What is mainly formed when you add pancreatic juice to proteins, lipids and polysacharides?
disacharides
363
What increases the blood pressure during exercise?
Sympathetic nervous system
364
Where are lipids digested and how are they transported?
They are digested in the duodenum, the products are encased in enterocytes after which they leave the enterocytes as chylomicrons
365
What forms when proteins are digested by exopeptidase or endopeptidase?
Exopeptidase -> amino acids
endopeptidase -> dipeptides, oligopeptides
366
What doe a change in PH in the duodenum regulate?
- release of bile from liver
- release of acid in stomach
- release of bicarbonate from pancreas
367
Does a. splenica branch from a. coelica?
yes
368
Does a hindgut fermenter have a higher efficiency than a foregut fermenter?
no
369
Do eucoelomatic animals have an intestine with muscle fibers running perpendicular to each other or gut mobility and character segmentation?
no
370
What is the absorptive state characterized by?
storage of energy which is stimulated by insuline
371
How is oxidation energy from glucose stored?
As ATP
372
Is glugogenesis anabolic?
yes
373
Where is glycogen stored?
in the skeletal muscle to produce energy
374
Where is the thymus located?
in the mediastinum between the pericard and the sternum
375
Is there adhesion between the parietal pleura and the pulmona pleura?
No
376
What arteries/veins does blood pass from the head of the fetal piglet?
vena jugularis -> vena brachyocephalius -> vena cava interior (NOT vena subclavia)
377
How much is the maximum O2 consumption during exercise?
10x more than in rest
378
Do veins, arteries, arterioles or capillaries have the highest compliance (expansion capacity)?
Veins
379
How is veinous return increased?
- respiration
- skeletal muscle contractions
- hypertension
380
where is the blood flow speed the highest?
large arteries and veins in vicinity of the heart
381
Does the diastema of ungulata elongate the jaws and provide the tongue with ample space for food manipulation?
yes
382
What is the secondary palate of mammals made up of?
Premaxillar, maxillar palatinum
383
Do carnivores have a well developed m temporalis to allow for powerful leviation of dentary?
yes
384
what are the layes when you centrifuge heparanized blood?
1 upper layer = serum
2 middle layer = white blood cells
3 pellet = red blood cells
385
Does fibrinogen (clotting agent) have an effect on plasma and why?
It does not have an effect on plasma because plasma is derived from blood with anticoagulant in it (eg heparine)
386
Why are capillaries in hepatic tissue fenestrated?
To allow proteins to pass through their wall fenestrae
387
What does an ECG measure?
external registration of depolerisation wave of heart muscles
388
The endocardium covers the chambers and valvulae of the heart, with what tissue is it continuous?
The tissue that covers the inside of the blood vessels
389
What is the development of the second palate in mammals linked to?
- hetorodant (differentiated) teeth
- deciduous and adult teeth (diphylodant)
- a high BMR/unit body mass (BMR = basal metabolic rate)
390
Why is oxygen consumption directly after exercise high and why?
Due to oxygen debt caused by recovery of glycogen stores and recovery of creatine phosphate
391
What happens when signal transduction between the SA and AV node is blocked?
Ventricles contract at lower frequency
392
Why does the stomach wall acidity decrease?
- low PH in duodenum
- food in duodenum
- stretching of the duodenum
393
What causes the first heart sound?
closing of the AV valves and the start of teh ventricular systole
394
What path does food ingested by ruminants take?
mouth -> rumen + reticulum -> mouth -> omasum -> abomasum
395
Where does gluconeogenesis take place?
the liver
396
What stimulates gal bladder contraction?
- CCK
- fat in duodenum
- hormones produced in intestinal wall
397
Bronchioles regulate the airflow to the alveoli, what are they most sensitive to?
alveolar PCO2
398
Do the musculi papillares in the heart ensure that the atrioventricular valvulae remain closed during the ventricle systolis?
Yes
399
Does the close relationship between pulmonary blood vessels and bronchi in a lung lobule forms an anatomical design which minimises the distance towards the alveoli?
yes
400
When the MAP increases, what happens to the afferent arterioles?
vasoconstriction of the afferent arterioles, which leads to a relative constant glomerular filtration pressure
401
What happens to the ventilation and bicarbonate excretion in case of alkalosis?
ventilation decreases, bicarbonate exretion increases
402
What does the contraction of the diaphragm lead to?
increased volume in the thorax cavity
403
What is a unique respiration structure for mammals?
The diaphragm
404
What is the definition of performance?
Performance is determined by the interaction between phenotype and environmental factors
405
Is increasing your alveolar ventilation by increasing your breathing frequency more or less efficient than increasing your respiratory volume?
NO
406
What groups will repilia include based on a cladistic perspective?
lizards, birds, crocodilians, turtles
407
What is an ancestral character which is shared by members of a clade is called?
a symplesiomorphic trait
408
How can fitness be quantified on the genotype level?
By comparing the frequency of a certain genotype in a population between two consecutive generations
