HONR 101A Chapter 1-4 Flashcards
The fundamental concern about the quality of your beliefs.
Critical thinking
An assertion that something is or is not the case.
Statement
A group of statements in which some of them are intended to support another of them. Gives reasons for believing that something is the case.
Argument
The statements/reasons given in support of another statement.
Premises
the statement(s) that the premises are intended to support.
Conclusion
A statement that tells us why or how something is the case
Explanation
The study of good reasoning, or inference, and the rules that govern it.
Logic
The logical link between premises and a conclusion that distinguishes arguments from all other kinds of discourse.
Inference
Terms that frequently accompany arguments and signal that a premise or conclusion is present.
Indicator words
Because, in view of the fact, given that, seeing that, as
common premise indicators
Due to the fact that, being that, since, assuming that, for the reason that
common premise indicators
inasmuch as, as indicated by, for, the reason being
common premise indicators
therefore, thus, which implies that, consequently
common conclusion indicators
it follows that, we can conclude that, so, hence
common conclusion indicators
it must be that, as a result, which means that, ergo
common conclusion indicators
Accepting a claim just because it advances your interests or helps you save face.
Self-centered thinking
Resisting evidence that contradicts cherished beliefs.
Resisting contrary evidence
Seeking out and using only confirming evidence.
Confirmation bias
Reasoning for the purpose of supporting a predetermined conclusion not to uncover truth.
Motivated reasoning
Relying on evidence because it’s memorable or striking not because it’s trustworthy.
Availability error
the way repeated exposure to words or images can induce a favorable feeling toward them even in the absence of reasons or evidence.
Mere exposure effect
Believing a false claim is true simply because it is familiar.
Illusion-of-truth effect
Overestimating the degree to which other people share our opinions, attitudes, and preferences.
False consensus effect
Fundamental ideas that help us make sense of a wide range of important issues in life.
World view
Being ignorant of how ignorant we are.
Dunning-Kruger effect
The view that truth depends solely on what someone believes
Subjective relativism
The view that truth is relative to societies.
Social relativism
Either persons or societies can never be mistaken. This is a problem for relativism
Infallibility
Their truth implies their falsity.
Self-refuting
The view that we know much less than we think or nothing at all.
Philosophical skepticism
Provide logically conclusive support for its conclusion.
Deductive argument
Deductive argument that succeeds in providing conclusive support for its conclusion.
Valid argument
Deductive argument that fails to provide conclusive support for its conclusion.
Invalid argument
A deductively valid argument with true premises.
Sound argument
a valid argument that assumes that if the premises are true, then its conclusion must be true.
Truth-preserving argument
Intended to provide probable- not conclusive- support for its conclusion.
Inductive argument
An inductive argument that succeeds in providing very probable support for its conclusion.
Strong argument
an inductive argument that fails to provide very probable support for its conclusion.
Weak argument
an inductively strong argument with true premises
Cogent argument
If premises are true, conclusion is very likely true.
Inductively strong arguments
personal meetings with decision-makers
Lobbying
Influencing through direct, private communications with decision-maker
Direct communication
it necessarily follows that, it logically follows that, absolutely, necessarily, certainly
Indicator words for deductive arguments
Likely, probably, chances are, odds are, it is plausible that
Indicator words for inductive arguments
Argument patterns that contain at least one if-then premise.
Conditional
The first statement/if part in a conditional premise
antecedent
The second statement/then part in a conditional premise
consequent
Affirming the antecedent. If the premises are true, the conclusion absolutely must be true.
Modus ponens
Denying the consequent. If the premises are true, the conclusion absolutely must be true. If p, then q. Not q Therefore, not p.
Modus tollens
A conditional, deductive argument made up of three statements- two premises and a conclusion. If p, then q. If q, then r. Therefore, if p, then r.
Hypothetical syllogism
A common conditional argument form that isn’t valid. If p, then q. Not p. Therefore, not q.
Denying the antecedent.
A common conditional argument form that isn’t valid. If p, then q. Q. Therefore, p.
Affirming the consequent
either p or q. Not p. Therefore, q.
Disjunctive syllogism
A method used to check for validity by simply devising a parallel argument that has the same form as the argument you’re evaluating but has obviously true premises and a false conclusion.
Counterexample method
Offers support to a conclusion without the help of any other premises. If other premises are omitted or undermined in an argument, the support provided by the independent premise remains unchanged.
Independent premise
Premises that depend on each other to jointly provide support to a conclusion. If either one is removed, the support that the remaining premise supplies is undermined or completely canceled out.
Dependent premises
Huge collection of very well supported beliefs that we all rely on to inform our actions and choices.
Background information
Someone who is more knowledgeable in a particular subject area or field than most others are.
Expert
A fallacy committed when we rely on someone deemed to be an expert who isn’t an expert for opinions.
Appeal to authority
Argue what was, is, or will be
Factual claims
Evaluate or judge something
Value claims
To argue that something should be done
Policy claims
A tool for analyzing arguments. Includes claims, grounds, warrants, backing, qualifier, and rebuttal.
The Toulmin Model
Serves as an argument’s foundation and justifies the main viewpoint. Answers the question “what information supports the claim?”
Grounds
Serves as the connective tissue between the claim and grounds. Must draw on what an audience already knows.
Warrant
Allows for special cases and helps establish credibility. Indicate the force or strength of the claim (or its limitations). Ex: Phrases such as… “in certain cases,” “in all probability”
Qualifier
Acknowledges the other side of the argument and persuades readers to ignore bias.
Rebuttal
Broadly defined, arises from our senses, memory, and judgment involved in those faculties. It is our evidence that something is or is not the case.
Personal experience
a kind of illusion in which the presence of a vague or ambiguous stimuli makes us perceive things that are not really there. Ex: Seeing ghosts or hearing Satanic messages when rock music is played backward.
Pareidolin
