HLM Exam #2 Flashcards
Benefits of testing
direct: helps memory
indirect: inventive to study and ask questions
recitation
trying to recite something and consulting the text when you fail
Testing effect
those who take a test when learning (usually an additional test after the study phase before a real test) have better memory
Is the testing effect true even without feedback?
yes
Gates (1917): varied amount of time reading and reciting
findings: the longer you spent in recitation (manipulating information and trying to recall it) the better you did
Spitzer (1939): timing of tests
- the earlier the test is taken after learning the better you do
- closer test 1 is to test 2 is better
Spitzer (1939): testing and forgetting
taking a test stabilizes forgetting
- more tests taken is better memory (“testing effect”)
Testing effect: should you study all the content and test all the content?
you should TEST all words - you can only study what you got wrong but to have maximum effect, restudying and retesting all words is best for learning
Which is better - repeated studying or testing?
repeated testing
- students think they will do worse but do better
- testing ALL words is the best (not just what you got wrong)
Immediate recall and the testing effect
restudying is best for immediate recall (cramming)
later recall and the testing effect
testing helps LTM recall at a later date
Feedback and the testing effect
feedback gives more power to this effect but it works with and without feed back
Spacing Effect
review sessions are more effective when distributed or spaced out rather than massed
Keppel (1967): spacing and massed vs. retention interval
for a short retention interval: spaced and massed are the same
for a long retention interval: spaced is better than massing
spacing improves…
generalization and transfer (especially for factual and higher knowledge)
What test formats show the spacing effect
ALL: recognition, free recall and generation
What is the optimal spacing?
5-10% of the time between encoding and test
- the longer the delay the longer you should space
- shorter spacing gaps better for a short delay
forgetting and the spacing effect
forgetting becomes less rapid with more spaced practice
encoding variability theory
the item and its context are stored at encoding
- the more different contexts you study in (aka more spaced practice), the more likely you will be able to match the context on a test
deficient processing theory
during massed practice, familiar information receives little attention
- feels boring / already known
Remindings
when you study a second time, you bring to mind when you first learned or studied that info
Interleaving
studying different things during one study session
blocked practice
studying the same thing for a long time and then moving on to something else for a long time
interleaved practice
mixing subjects when studying
Blocked vs. interleaved feelings AND short vs. long term effects
people feel better on blocked practice (will do better on short term practice) but will ultimately do better in an interleaved condition
Induction learning
When you identify something or learn a rule by observing (ie the artists and asked to identify a new one of their paintings)
Spaced retrieval practice
testing with spacing –> very good for memory
Implicit Memory
not intending to draw upon prior experiences but you do anyways
How do we measure priming? `
% studied correct - % non-studied correct = % priming
Serial pattern learning
if there are embedded sequences in a task participants will go faster (even if they are unaware these patterns exist)
priming
benefit of recent prior experience
implicit memory
change in task performances due to recent prior experience (priming) - without intent to use experience
explicit memory
willful attempt to retrieve
How do we test explicit memory?
- free / serial recall
- cued recall
- recognition
- paired association learning
Perceptual implicit memory tests
- word fragment identification
- picture fragment identification
- anagram solution
- word stem completion
- word identification (brief presentation)
- word identification in noise
Conceptual implicit memory tests
1.) general knowledge: primed with hint about subject, faster recall to a related question
2.) category instance generation: say first 8 fruits that come to mind (know what these usually are and prime an unusual fruit to see what happens)
3.) preference judgements: if you have seen/experienced something recently, you usually like it more
Amnesia and Implicit Memory
priming effects hold for people with amnesia (even though they don’t remember it) –> shows there is not a problem with STM transfer to LTM in amnesiacs (information is getting to LTM but it can not be retrieved)
Dissociation
Forgetting and Priming
Over a week, no words were forgotten if you were primed with them but forgetting for recognition increases
level of processing and priming
- no effect on perceptual priming - all levels have the same % correct if primed
Generation effect and priming
perceptual identification (implicit memory test): generating is the worst
- if you are seeing a degraded image, it is better if you have seen it before rather than generated it
Picture Superiority Effect and Priming
if it is WORD FRAGMENT identification, words are remembered better
if it is PICTURE FRAGMENT identification, picture superiority effect holds
this is the best if in study phase, you are given a fragment and told what it is (you have already processed the degraded stimulus)
Conceptual implicit tests and patterns more similar to explicit or implicit memory?
tend to show the same patterns as explicit memory (deep encoding and generation effects hold)
Brain activity and priming
more brain activity if you are NOT primed (working harder)
Types of memory distortions
1) benign: not harmful (think you took a pill but didn’t)
2) serious: harmful (remembering a crime wrong)
3) fantastic: out of the ordinary and extreme
misleading questions
affect recollection
Enhancing memory and reconstruction
Enhancing memory through:
1) deeper processing
2) testing
3) mental images
can increase the likelihood of a false memory
Boundary Extension (Intraub 1989)
we zoom out and fill in details when remembering an image or scene
- knowing about this effect does not stop it from happening
Influence of Verbal labels
- what you label an image as changes how you remember it (sunglasses vs. dumbbell)
- we often encounter nonverbal stimuli: we attach a verbal label to these and that changes them
pragmatic implications
not logically implied –> pragmatically implied (the baby stayed awake all night - we would remember the baby cried all night)
Associations with non-presented critical lure
If we are given a list of words that are related and the related word is not given, we will remember it as given anyways.
- they also said they “remembered” this word
Remembering vs. Knowing
remembering: can remember the exact moment of encoding (what happened directly before or after, sounds etc)
knowing: you don’t know how you know it, you just do
Mental Images and False Recall
if you imagine something, you are more likely to remember it did happen
Imagination inflation
imagining something makes you remember details that weren’t there
Problems with imagination inflation studies
hypermnesia: what if this just triggered a memory of something that did happen?
we don’t know what really did and didn’t happen
Testing and False Recall
Testing: the more you are tested the better you remember words AND falsely recall (related lures)
Innocence Project
75% of convictions overturned is due to mismemory
Clive Wearing
anterograde and retrograde amnesia: can not form new memories or remember anything past 7-10 seconds
Neuroanatomy with Amnesia
medial temporal lobe (hippocampus)
Anterograde Amnesia
Can not form new memories after injury
- show implicit memory
Retrograde Amnesia
Can’t access old memories before an injury
- can be a side effect of ECT
Temporal gradient (ribot’s law)
older memories are more stable and can come back in time
Is a person usually 1 type of amnesiac?
no, usually a combo of both types with one more severe
HM
had prefrontal lobotomy and bilateral temporal lobe resection
- temporal lobe most important: damage to hippocampus
- both retrograde and anterograde amnesia
What is kept in patients with Amnesia?
IQ, perceptual memory, motor skills, short-term memory, reasoning
Types of Memory
1) explicit (declarative):
a. episodic: specific events
b. semantic: general knowledge
2) implicit (nondeclarative)
a. procedural
b. priming
Procedural Memory and Amnesia
experiment often mirror tracing
- with more practice, people get better even if they don’t remember previously doing the task
KC
- damage to medial temporal lobe (but it diffused to other brain areas)
- retrograde and anterograde amnesia
- semantic memory spared: can answer general knowledge
- can be primed into remembering
- hard time with mental imagery
- better with shapes
- normal STM (7 digits)
ecological fallacy
no one may represent the average - it is hard to infer individual performance from a group
- we can make inferences (a person who performs better on one cognitive task is more likely to perform better on another)
Higher IQ
better working memory capacity and LTM
3 ways to study individual differences
1) correlational approach
2) contrastive analysis
3) extreme groups contrast
Knowledge base
the role of expertise in learning
- people with high knowledge base learn and retain new facts IN THAT DOMAIN more easily (not in general)
- because: can relate it to other info (thus deeper processing)
Paradox of the expert
there is NO proactive interference or confusion (actually easier to integrate new knowledge)
Why can experts remember similar content better?
1) they can add more info per chunk and remember more overall chunks
Non experts with experience
experience is better than no experience, but not as good as expert
- does not generalize; specific to domain
General Background Knowledge
1) verbal ability
2) vocab
- can help explain individual differences
Better Vocab influences
1) faster learning for word paired association
2) better LTM for word paired associations
Working Memory Capacity: Individual Differences
1) individual differences in working memory often due to ability to direct / control attention (concentration)
2) comes out in hard tasks
3) higher WM capacity correlates with better LTM
False Recall and Better Working Memory
People with higher working memory can take advantage of a warning that a list will induce false recall
Learning Strategies
people invoke different strategies and how effectively they use them
- the strategies are helpful across all people but some people use them better
Self-initiated strategies
how people select an optimal strategies
- frontal lobe damage: people have a hard time using strategies
Using strategies: amnesia, controls, frontal lobe damage
controls: people automatically use strategies even if they are not prompted to
frontal lobe: people have to be told what strategies to use to get the benefit
amnesia: can not get any benefit from strategies (don’t use them and forget if they are told to)
Retrieval Speed
Definition: how fast you can access info from LTM
- faster retrieval: signals better LTM access
- levels:
1) children
2) older adults
3) young adults
4) University students
5) low to high verbal ability in University students
- have to take a difference because everyone will have a baseline individuals
Individual differences: where do they come from
arise from multiple sources that are unlikely due to one source
Sleep general facts
1) it takes 10-20 minutes to fall asleep
2) 30% of the population suffers from insomnia
3) sleep deficits linked to Alzheimer’s, mood instability, psychosis, cognitive impariment
4) amount of sleep changes over a lifespan
Polysomnography
how we measure sleep
1) EEG: brain waves
2) EMG: movements
3) EOG: eye movements
4) respiration (O2 levels)
Stages of Sleep
- Similar for all humans
Non-REM:
1) stage 1 (N1): light
2) stage 2 (N2): light
3) stage 3 (N3): slow wave sleep (deep)
REM: rapid eye movement - 90 minute cycles
Slow wave sleep
“delta sleep” - the most restorative
- restorative sleep is during Non-REM sleep (first half of night)
REM Sleep
rapid eye movement sleep
- when we dream (brain activity is like being awake)
- relaxed muscles
Consolidation
move info from hippocampus to frontal cortex
- in between encoding and storage
- cortical structures take over memory over time
- why we can remember childhood events with amnesia (more stable)
Ways to study sleeping vs. awake on memory
1) control / wake group: 8 am encoding – day – 8pm retrival
2) sleep group: 8pm encoding – sleep – 8 am retrival
Ways to study type of sleep
1) slow wave group: 11pm encoding – sleep 3 hours – 2am retrieval (early sleep)
2) REM group: 3am encoding – sleep 3 hours – 6 am retrieval (late sleep)
3) control: awake encoding – awake 3 hours – awake retrieval
Sleep and proactive interference
sleep protects against proactive interference BUT it is more active than that
Sleep with related and unrelated words (Payne 2012)
2 conditions:
1) related words: no effect
2) unrelated words: sleeping right after encoding is better than being awake – because this is only for unrelated words, must be doing something more active than protecting against proactive interference
Type of Sleep and Episodic Memory (Pilhal 1997) CONDITIONS
Conditions:
1) early sleep: 11pm encoding – 3 hours sleep – 2am retrieval
2) early wake: 11pm encoding – 3 hours awake – 2am retrieval
3) late sleep: 11pm sleep – 2am encoding – 3 hours sleep – 5am retrieval
4) late wake: 11pm sleep – 2am encoding – 3 awake – 5am retrieval
Type of Sleep and Episodic Memory (Pilhal 1997) FINDINGS
Slow wave sleep (non-REM) is best for episodic memory recall
- (early sleep best, early wake, then all late conditions)
Sleep and Procedural Memory (Pilhal 1997)
Conditions: mirror tracing, practice until few errors, _____, trace a novel object
1) early sleep
2) late sleep
3) awake
Findings: REM sleep solidifies procedural memory (aka late sleep condition)
Sleep and False Memory (Payne 2009)
we are unsure (studies with conflicting results)
- one showed increase in accurate and false recall
- one showed sleep decreased false memory
Memory Reactivation
basic: odor is given when you learn ALL cards (same odor)
- 1/2 of participants are cued with odor during sleep
- cuing the odor helped recall in the morning
Targeted Memory Reactivation
study: learned place of cards and were presented with sounds related to each card during encoding
- made sure items were equally remembered before sleep
- cued specific sounds for 1/2 of the items in slow wave sleep
- better performance if cued (subjects never woke or knew what was cued)
Mnemonic Devices definitions
relating to be remembered info to what you already know
- often using imagery to attach a cue to encoded material (making free recall cued recall)
Single use mnemonic techniques
using the first letter of what you want to remember to create a word
- not flexible: only used once
Multiple Use Mnemonics
1) link method
2) peg method
3) method of loci
Link method
take each piece of incoming information and link it to the prior one
- often using imagery techniques to create a story
- hard if you miss one to get the rest
Peg-Word Method
learn word pairs with numbers prior to encoding
ex: one is a gun, two is a shoe, three is a tree etc.
- match incoming words with images (aka link first word to gun and form an image)
- best if bizarre and distinctive images
Method of Loci
1) create a memory palace: memorize locations of a place in order (walking through a place you know well)
2) attach a piece of information to each place in your “memory palace”
- easy to skip around if needed
Person - Action - Object System (PAO)
come up with a person, action and object for each thing you are memorizing
ex: cards: each specific card and suite has a PAO
- chunk things in 3s creating a specific image using the PAO
- 1st card = person, 2nd = action, 3rd = object – create distinctive image
- put this image in a memory palace (in combo with loci method)
- also done with numbers or binary – binary higher because 27 binary in 1 PAO)
Timing of tests to increase power
- the earlier the test is taken after learning the better you do
- closer test 1 is to test 2 is better
How can we capitalize what babies do naturally to study memory?
1) sucking rate (non-nutritional or nutritional)
2) imitating
3) tracking
4) reaching
Ways to study infants
1) visual or auditory preferences (habituation and time spent looking, listening, or non-nutritive sucking)
2) conjugate reinforcement (conditioning) – rewards and behavior
3) deferred imitation
Visual Preferences
measuring how long a baby looks at something (DV)
- babies looked at the nonhabituated stimulus for longer – must have some memory of the pervious thing because noticed a change
Habituation
when you present something for a long time, we get bored of it and pay less attention
Dishabituation
when we introduce something new after growing accustomed to a different stimulus
Proper procedures for researchers and caregivers
can not know what stimulus the baby is looking at
- researcher: correct for assumptions
- caregiver: to correct for accidentally directing the baby’s attention
Paired comparisons (within visual preference)
two identical stimuli shown –> change one and see preference
Auditory preferences
usually using speakers at different locations - what does the baby turn to?
- babies listen longer to novel stimuli
- can play around with subtle or large changes
Non nutritive sucking
sucking rate increases with novel stimuli
Conjugate reinforcement (Rovee-Collier, 1993)
DV: kicking rate
- tied a baby’s foot to a mobile - when they kick, they are rewarded with the mobile moving – this causes them to kick harder and faster
- if you take babies away from this and then put them back, will they continue to kick harder?
YES: kicks increase when rewarded and the kicking rate stays higher for 2 to 6 month olds
Age related effects in memory
have to complete age related tasks
- start with the mobile and transition to something like the train task
memory span increases with age
- 6 month: 2 week span
- 18 month: 13 week span
Deferred Imitation
have someone make a face at the baby while they have a pacifier in (so they can not immediately make it). Then take pacifier out and see what they do
- they usually copy showing some memory for the face made
true with behaviors too (the duck)
Are babies memories explicit?
they may not remember being in the research lab, it may be procedural (but we can not be sure)
Neuroanatomy with development
frontal lobe, hippocampus
Skill development that aids memory
1) strategy use
2) task-relevant knowledge (experience)
3) metamemory
4) speed
Strategies in children vs adolescence
early strategy: rehearsal and whispering to themselves (increases from 5-10 years old)
- linked to frontal lobe development
- older children: will modify this (such as chunking and categorizing, imagery) as they age
Metamemory development
5 year olds know it is harder to remember a long list, yet will not spend more time trying to learn it
- understand what they should do, but do not employ this until older
Children and the Serial Position Curve
children do not show a recency effect
- they might be holding info in STM but do not know that they should dump this first thus it goes away
Speed and memory
as speech rate increases, so does memory
- faster rehearsal = more rehearsa;
First memories
- often the birth of a sibling
- usually around 3-5 years old (before that = “infantile/childhood amnesia”)
- we remember the most within the last 5 to 10 years
Infantile Amnesia
may be do to being preverbal OR that getting into the mindset of a 2 year old is hard
3 Theoretical accounts of the spacing effect
1) encoding variability theory
2) deficient processing
3) remindings
