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FALL 2022 > HLM Exam #2 > Flashcards

HLM Exam #2 Flashcards

1
Q

Benefits of testing

A

direct: helps memory
indirect: inventive to study and ask questions

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2
Q

recitation

A

trying to recite something and consulting the text when you fail

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3
Q

Testing effect

A

those who take a test when learning (usually an additional test after the study phase before a real test) have better memory

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4
Q

Is the testing effect true even without feedback?

A

yes

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5
Q

Gates (1917): varied amount of time reading and reciting

A

findings: the longer you spent in recitation (manipulating information and trying to recall it) the better you did

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6
Q

Spitzer (1939): timing of tests

A
  • the earlier the test is taken after learning the better you do
  • closer test 1 is to test 2 is better
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7
Q

Spitzer (1939): testing and forgetting

A

taking a test stabilizes forgetting
- more tests taken is better memory (“testing effect”)

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8
Q

Testing effect: should you study all the content and test all the content?

A

you should TEST all words - you can only study what you got wrong but to have maximum effect, restudying and retesting all words is best for learning

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9
Q

Which is better - repeated studying or testing?

A

repeated testing
- students think they will do worse but do better
- testing ALL words is the best (not just what you got wrong)

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10
Q

Immediate recall and the testing effect

A

restudying is best for immediate recall (cramming)

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11
Q

later recall and the testing effect

A

testing helps LTM recall at a later date

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12
Q

Feedback and the testing effect

A

feedback gives more power to this effect but it works with and without feed back

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13
Q

Spacing Effect

A

review sessions are more effective when distributed or spaced out rather than massed

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14
Q

Keppel (1967): spacing and massed vs. retention interval

A

for a short retention interval: spaced and massed are the same
for a long retention interval: spaced is better than massing

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15
Q

spacing improves…

A

generalization and transfer (especially for factual and higher knowledge)

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16
Q

What test formats show the spacing effect

A

ALL: recognition, free recall and generation

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17
Q

What is the optimal spacing?

A

5-10% of the time between encoding and test
- the longer the delay the longer you should space
- shorter spacing gaps better for a short delay

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18
Q

forgetting and the spacing effect

A

forgetting becomes less rapid with more spaced practice

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19
Q

encoding variability theory

A

the item and its context are stored at encoding
- the more different contexts you study in (aka more spaced practice), the more likely you will be able to match the context on a test

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20
Q

deficient processing theory

A

during massed practice, familiar information receives little attention
- feels boring / already known

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21
Q

Remindings

A

when you study a second time, you bring to mind when you first learned or studied that info

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22
Q

Interleaving

A

studying different things during one study session

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23
Q

blocked practice

A

studying the same thing for a long time and then moving on to something else for a long time

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24
Q

interleaved practice

A

mixing subjects when studying

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25
Q

Blocked vs. interleaved feelings AND short vs. long term effects

A

people feel better on blocked practice (will do better on short term practice) but will ultimately do better in an interleaved condition

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26
Q

Induction learning

A

When you identify something or learn a rule by observing (ie the artists and asked to identify a new one of their paintings)

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27
Q

Spaced retrieval practice

A

testing with spacing –> very good for memory

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28
Q

Implicit Memory

A

not intending to draw upon prior experiences but you do anyways

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29
Q

How do we measure priming? `

A

% studied correct - % non-studied correct = % priming

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30
Q

Serial pattern learning

A

if there are embedded sequences in a task participants will go faster (even if they are unaware these patterns exist)

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31
Q

priming

A

benefit of recent prior experience

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32
Q

implicit memory

A

change in task performances due to recent prior experience (priming) - without intent to use experience

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33
Q

explicit memory

A

willful attempt to retrieve

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34
Q

How do we test explicit memory?

A
  • free / serial recall
  • cued recall
  • recognition
  • paired association learning
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35
Q

Perceptual implicit memory tests

A
  1. word fragment identification
  2. picture fragment identification
  3. anagram solution
  4. word stem completion
  5. word identification (brief presentation)
  6. word identification in noise
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36
Q

Conceptual implicit memory tests

A

1.) general knowledge: primed with hint about subject, faster recall to a related question
2.) category instance generation: say first 8 fruits that come to mind (know what these usually are and prime an unusual fruit to see what happens)
3.) preference judgements: if you have seen/experienced something recently, you usually like it more

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37
Q

Amnesia and Implicit Memory

A

priming effects hold for people with amnesia (even though they don’t remember it) –> shows there is not a problem with STM transfer to LTM in amnesiacs (information is getting to LTM but it can not be retrieved)

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38
Q

Dissociation

A
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39
Q

Forgetting and Priming

A

Over a week, no words were forgotten if you were primed with them but forgetting for recognition increases

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40
Q

level of processing and priming

A
  • no effect on perceptual priming - all levels have the same % correct if primed
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41
Q

Generation effect and priming

A

perceptual identification (implicit memory test): generating is the worst
- if you are seeing a degraded image, it is better if you have seen it before rather than generated it

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42
Q

Picture Superiority Effect and Priming

A

if it is WORD FRAGMENT identification, words are remembered better
if it is PICTURE FRAGMENT identification, picture superiority effect holds
this is the best if in study phase, you are given a fragment and told what it is (you have already processed the degraded stimulus)

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43
Q

Conceptual implicit tests and patterns more similar to explicit or implicit memory?

A

tend to show the same patterns as explicit memory (deep encoding and generation effects hold)

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44
Q

Brain activity and priming

A

more brain activity if you are NOT primed (working harder)

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45
Q

Types of memory distortions

A

1) benign: not harmful (think you took a pill but didn’t)
2) serious: harmful (remembering a crime wrong)
3) fantastic: out of the ordinary and extreme

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46
Q

misleading questions

A

affect recollection

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47
Q

Enhancing memory and reconstruction

A

Enhancing memory through:
1) deeper processing
2) testing
3) mental images
can increase the likelihood of a false memory

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48
Q

Boundary Extension (Intraub 1989)

A

we zoom out and fill in details when remembering an image or scene
- knowing about this effect does not stop it from happening

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49
Q

Influence of Verbal labels

A
  • what you label an image as changes how you remember it (sunglasses vs. dumbbell)
  • we often encounter nonverbal stimuli: we attach a verbal label to these and that changes them
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50
Q

pragmatic implications

A

not logically implied –> pragmatically implied (the baby stayed awake all night - we would remember the baby cried all night)

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51
Q

Associations with non-presented critical lure

A

If we are given a list of words that are related and the related word is not given, we will remember it as given anyways.
- they also said they “remembered” this word

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52
Q

Remembering vs. Knowing

A

remembering: can remember the exact moment of encoding (what happened directly before or after, sounds etc)
knowing: you don’t know how you know it, you just do

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53
Q

Mental Images and False Recall

A

if you imagine something, you are more likely to remember it did happen

54
Q

Imagination inflation

A

imagining something makes you remember details that weren’t there

55
Q

Problems with imagination inflation studies

A

hypermnesia: what if this just triggered a memory of something that did happen?
we don’t know what really did and didn’t happen

56
Q

Testing and False Recall

A

Testing: the more you are tested the better you remember words AND falsely recall (related lures)

57
Q

Innocence Project

A

75% of convictions overturned is due to mismemory

58
Q

Clive Wearing

A

anterograde and retrograde amnesia: can not form new memories or remember anything past 7-10 seconds

59
Q

Neuroanatomy with Amnesia

A

medial temporal lobe (hippocampus)

60
Q

Anterograde Amnesia

A

Can not form new memories after injury
- show implicit memory

61
Q

Retrograde Amnesia

A

Can’t access old memories before an injury
- can be a side effect of ECT

62
Q

Temporal gradient (ribot’s law)

A

older memories are more stable and can come back in time

63
Q

Is a person usually 1 type of amnesiac?

A

no, usually a combo of both types with one more severe

64
Q

HM

A

had prefrontal lobotomy and bilateral temporal lobe resection
- temporal lobe most important: damage to hippocampus
- both retrograde and anterograde amnesia

65
Q

What is kept in patients with Amnesia?

A

IQ, perceptual memory, motor skills, short-term memory, reasoning

66
Q

Types of Memory

A

1) explicit (declarative):
a. episodic: specific events
b. semantic: general knowledge
2) implicit (nondeclarative)
a. procedural
b. priming

67
Q

Procedural Memory and Amnesia

A

experiment often mirror tracing
- with more practice, people get better even if they don’t remember previously doing the task

68
Q

KC

A
  • damage to medial temporal lobe (but it diffused to other brain areas)
  • retrograde and anterograde amnesia
  • semantic memory spared: can answer general knowledge
  • can be primed into remembering
  • hard time with mental imagery
  • better with shapes
  • normal STM (7 digits)
69
Q

ecological fallacy

A

no one may represent the average - it is hard to infer individual performance from a group
- we can make inferences (a person who performs better on one cognitive task is more likely to perform better on another)

70
Q

Higher IQ

A

better working memory capacity and LTM

71
Q

3 ways to study individual differences

A

1) correlational approach
2) contrastive analysis
3) extreme groups contrast

72
Q

Knowledge base

A

the role of expertise in learning
- people with high knowledge base learn and retain new facts IN THAT DOMAIN more easily (not in general)
- because: can relate it to other info (thus deeper processing)

73
Q

Paradox of the expert

A

there is NO proactive interference or confusion (actually easier to integrate new knowledge)

74
Q

Why can experts remember similar content better?

A

1) they can add more info per chunk and remember more overall chunks

75
Q

Non experts with experience

A

experience is better than no experience, but not as good as expert
- does not generalize; specific to domain

76
Q

General Background Knowledge

A

1) verbal ability
2) vocab
- can help explain individual differences

77
Q

Better Vocab influences

A

1) faster learning for word paired association
2) better LTM for word paired associations

78
Q

Working Memory Capacity: Individual Differences

A

1) individual differences in working memory often due to ability to direct / control attention (concentration)
2) comes out in hard tasks
3) higher WM capacity correlates with better LTM

79
Q

False Recall and Better Working Memory

A

People with higher working memory can take advantage of a warning that a list will induce false recall

80
Q

Learning Strategies

A

people invoke different strategies and how effectively they use them
- the strategies are helpful across all people but some people use them better

81
Q

Self-initiated strategies

A

how people select an optimal strategies
- frontal lobe damage: people have a hard time using strategies

82
Q

Using strategies: amnesia, controls, frontal lobe damage

A

controls: people automatically use strategies even if they are not prompted to
frontal lobe: people have to be told what strategies to use to get the benefit
amnesia: can not get any benefit from strategies (don’t use them and forget if they are told to)

83
Q

Retrieval Speed

A

Definition: how fast you can access info from LTM
- faster retrieval: signals better LTM access
- levels:
1) children
2) older adults
3) young adults
4) University students
5) low to high verbal ability in University students
- have to take a difference because everyone will have a baseline individuals

84
Q

Individual differences: where do they come from

A

arise from multiple sources that are unlikely due to one source

85
Q

Sleep general facts

A

1) it takes 10-20 minutes to fall asleep
2) 30% of the population suffers from insomnia
3) sleep deficits linked to Alzheimer’s, mood instability, psychosis, cognitive impariment
4) amount of sleep changes over a lifespan

86
Q

Polysomnography

A

how we measure sleep
1) EEG: brain waves
2) EMG: movements
3) EOG: eye movements
4) respiration (O2 levels)

87
Q

Stages of Sleep

A
  • Similar for all humans
    Non-REM:
    1) stage 1 (N1): light
    2) stage 2 (N2): light
    3) stage 3 (N3): slow wave sleep (deep)
    REM: rapid eye movement
  • 90 minute cycles
88
Q

Slow wave sleep

A

“delta sleep” - the most restorative
- restorative sleep is during Non-REM sleep (first half of night)

89
Q

REM Sleep

A

rapid eye movement sleep
- when we dream (brain activity is like being awake)
- relaxed muscles

90
Q

Consolidation

A

move info from hippocampus to frontal cortex
- in between encoding and storage
- cortical structures take over memory over time
- why we can remember childhood events with amnesia (more stable)

91
Q

Ways to study sleeping vs. awake on memory

A

1) control / wake group: 8 am encoding – day – 8pm retrival
2) sleep group: 8pm encoding – sleep – 8 am retrival

92
Q

Ways to study type of sleep

A

1) slow wave group: 11pm encoding – sleep 3 hours – 2am retrieval (early sleep)
2) REM group: 3am encoding – sleep 3 hours – 6 am retrieval (late sleep)
3) control: awake encoding – awake 3 hours – awake retrieval

93
Q

Sleep and proactive interference

A

sleep protects against proactive interference BUT it is more active than that

94
Q

Sleep with related and unrelated words (Payne 2012)

A

2 conditions:
1) related words: no effect
2) unrelated words: sleeping right after encoding is better than being awake – because this is only for unrelated words, must be doing something more active than protecting against proactive interference

95
Q

Type of Sleep and Episodic Memory (Pilhal 1997) CONDITIONS

A

Conditions:
1) early sleep: 11pm encoding – 3 hours sleep – 2am retrieval
2) early wake: 11pm encoding – 3 hours awake – 2am retrieval
3) late sleep: 11pm sleep – 2am encoding – 3 hours sleep – 5am retrieval
4) late wake: 11pm sleep – 2am encoding – 3 awake – 5am retrieval

96
Q

Type of Sleep and Episodic Memory (Pilhal 1997) FINDINGS

A

Slow wave sleep (non-REM) is best for episodic memory recall
- (early sleep best, early wake, then all late conditions)

97
Q

Sleep and Procedural Memory (Pilhal 1997)

A

Conditions: mirror tracing, practice until few errors, _____, trace a novel object
1) early sleep
2) late sleep
3) awake
Findings: REM sleep solidifies procedural memory (aka late sleep condition)

98
Q

Sleep and False Memory (Payne 2009)

A

we are unsure (studies with conflicting results)
- one showed increase in accurate and false recall
- one showed sleep decreased false memory

99
Q

Memory Reactivation

A

basic: odor is given when you learn ALL cards (same odor)
- 1/2 of participants are cued with odor during sleep
- cuing the odor helped recall in the morning

100
Q

Targeted Memory Reactivation

A

study: learned place of cards and were presented with sounds related to each card during encoding
- made sure items were equally remembered before sleep
- cued specific sounds for 1/2 of the items in slow wave sleep
- better performance if cued (subjects never woke or knew what was cued)

101
Q

Mnemonic Devices definitions

A

relating to be remembered info to what you already know
- often using imagery to attach a cue to encoded material (making free recall cued recall)

102
Q

Single use mnemonic techniques

A

using the first letter of what you want to remember to create a word
- not flexible: only used once

103
Q

Multiple Use Mnemonics

A

1) link method
2) peg method
3) method of loci

104
Q

Link method

A

take each piece of incoming information and link it to the prior one
- often using imagery techniques to create a story
- hard if you miss one to get the rest

105
Q

Peg-Word Method

A

learn word pairs with numbers prior to encoding
ex: one is a gun, two is a shoe, three is a tree etc.
- match incoming words with images (aka link first word to gun and form an image)
- best if bizarre and distinctive images

106
Q

Method of Loci

A

1) create a memory palace: memorize locations of a place in order (walking through a place you know well)
2) attach a piece of information to each place in your “memory palace”
- easy to skip around if needed

107
Q

Person - Action - Object System (PAO)

A

come up with a person, action and object for each thing you are memorizing
ex: cards: each specific card and suite has a PAO
- chunk things in 3s creating a specific image using the PAO
- 1st card = person, 2nd = action, 3rd = object – create distinctive image
- put this image in a memory palace (in combo with loci method)
- also done with numbers or binary – binary higher because 27 binary in 1 PAO)

108
Q

Timing of tests to increase power

A
  • the earlier the test is taken after learning the better you do
  • closer test 1 is to test 2 is better
109
Q

How can we capitalize what babies do naturally to study memory?

A

1) sucking rate (non-nutritional or nutritional)
2) imitating
3) tracking
4) reaching

110
Q

Ways to study infants

A

1) visual or auditory preferences (habituation and time spent looking, listening, or non-nutritive sucking)
2) conjugate reinforcement (conditioning) – rewards and behavior
3) deferred imitation

111
Q

Visual Preferences

A

measuring how long a baby looks at something (DV)
- babies looked at the nonhabituated stimulus for longer – must have some memory of the pervious thing because noticed a change

112
Q

Habituation

A

when you present something for a long time, we get bored of it and pay less attention

113
Q

Dishabituation

A

when we introduce something new after growing accustomed to a different stimulus

114
Q

Proper procedures for researchers and caregivers

A

can not know what stimulus the baby is looking at
- researcher: correct for assumptions
- caregiver: to correct for accidentally directing the baby’s attention

115
Q

Paired comparisons (within visual preference)

A

two identical stimuli shown –> change one and see preference

116
Q

Auditory preferences

A

usually using speakers at different locations - what does the baby turn to?
- babies listen longer to novel stimuli
- can play around with subtle or large changes

117
Q

Non nutritive sucking

A

sucking rate increases with novel stimuli

118
Q

Conjugate reinforcement (Rovee-Collier, 1993)

A

DV: kicking rate
- tied a baby’s foot to a mobile - when they kick, they are rewarded with the mobile moving – this causes them to kick harder and faster
- if you take babies away from this and then put them back, will they continue to kick harder?
YES: kicks increase when rewarded and the kicking rate stays higher for 2 to 6 month olds

119
Q

Age related effects in memory

A

have to complete age related tasks
- start with the mobile and transition to something like the train task
memory span increases with age
- 6 month: 2 week span
- 18 month: 13 week span

120
Q

Deferred Imitation

A

have someone make a face at the baby while they have a pacifier in (so they can not immediately make it). Then take pacifier out and see what they do
- they usually copy showing some memory for the face made
true with behaviors too (the duck)

121
Q

Are babies memories explicit?

A

they may not remember being in the research lab, it may be procedural (but we can not be sure)

122
Q

Neuroanatomy with development

A

frontal lobe, hippocampus

123
Q

Skill development that aids memory

A

1) strategy use
2) task-relevant knowledge (experience)
3) metamemory
4) speed

124
Q

Strategies in children vs adolescence

A

early strategy: rehearsal and whispering to themselves (increases from 5-10 years old)
- linked to frontal lobe development
- older children: will modify this (such as chunking and categorizing, imagery) as they age

125
Q

Metamemory development

A

5 year olds know it is harder to remember a long list, yet will not spend more time trying to learn it
- understand what they should do, but do not employ this until older

126
Q

Children and the Serial Position Curve

A

children do not show a recency effect
- they might be holding info in STM but do not know that they should dump this first thus it goes away

127
Q

Speed and memory

A

as speech rate increases, so does memory
- faster rehearsal = more rehearsa;

128
Q

First memories

A
  • often the birth of a sibling
  • usually around 3-5 years old (before that = “infantile/childhood amnesia”)
  • we remember the most within the last 5 to 10 years
129
Q

Infantile Amnesia

A

may be do to being preverbal OR that getting into the mindset of a 2 year old is hard

130
Q

3 Theoretical accounts of the spacing effect

A

1) encoding variability theory
2) deficient processing
3) remindings

FALL 2022 (11 decks)

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