History Exam 3 Flashcards
Summarize and discuss examples of perception studies by the founding Gestalt psychologists
Wertheimer
Phi phenomenon
Presented two stationery lights blinking alternately. Participants didn’t perceive two distinct lights but saw a single light moving back and forth
Illusion that cannot be explained by SR learning demonstrated that the brain perceives continuous movements based on patterns versus reacting to sensory stimuli
Perception is organized into wholes rather than sum of individual parts
Brain plays an active role in interpreting sensory input and fills in gaps to create a coherent experience
Koffka
Law of Pragnanz
People perceive objects in the simplest, most organized and symmetrical forms possible
His experiments demonstrated that the brain prefers to organize chaotic or ambiguous stimuli into more stable and organized shapes
Participants were shown complex incomplete shapes and they automatically filled in missing details to complete the shapes in simple forms.
HIs research suggests that perceptual organization is not random, but follows certain laws
Kohler
Worked with chimpanzees during his time on the Canary Islands
Chimps did problem solving tasks where they needed to obtain food (bananas) that were out of reach
One chimp stacked boxes/used a stick to extend his reach to get the food
Demonstrated that animals (and thus, humans) can perceive relationships between objects and solve problems through sudden insights, rather than through trial and error
Perception is not simply reactive or passive but involves an active and organized understanding of the environment
Description of the phi phenomenon
The perception of movement between two stationary lights shown in succession at optimal (rapid) intervals. Motion is perceived without any physical movement between the lights
Example: Two lights flashing successively at the right intervals can appear as a single moving light or if two sounds are played successively at optimal intervals, one may perceive a “whooshing” or continuous sound
Identify and define at least three Gestalt principles of perceptual organization.
Similarity
Grouping similar objects together
Elements that share visual characteristics (color, shape, size, texture) are perceived as belonging to the same group
Grouping all circles together and all squares together because they have the same shape
Proximity
Grouping objects that are close together
Objects that are close to each other are perceived as belonging to the same group, even if their individual characteristics are different
In a set of dots, those grouped closer together are seen as belonging to the same cluster, even if they do not look identical (versus dots that are farther apart)
Closure
Completing incomplete shapes to form a whole
Our mind fill in gaps in complete figures to perceive them as complete or whole. We mentally close the gaps to see a figure as a whole
Broken circle with gaps, we still see it as a complete circle or when everyone was wearing a mask, tried to perceive/guess what their entire face looked like
Define and summarize at least three principles of insight learning according to Wolfgang Köhler.
Suddeness
Aha! Moments
Sudden realization of the solution to a problem, rather than gradually coming to an answer through trial and error
Insight learning involves understanding the problem in a new way which can lead to immediate comprehension/understanding of the solution
Perception of the Whole Situation
Learning that occurs without needing rewards, as the solution is grasped before any reward is given
We solve problems by seeing the situation holistically, rather than focusing on individual parts
The mind organizes information as wholes, which allows us to understand the relationship between objects and their uses
Transfer of Learning (Transposability)
The generalization of the solution to similar problems
Apply learned solutions to new situations that are similar
Transferring understanding to solve different problems with similar structures
Insight learning is flexible and helps us to understand generalizable relationships rather than relying on memorizing specific responses
Summarize Köhler’s transposition test in chickens, and discuss how he attempted to challenge the concept of stimulus-response learning with this test.
He had chickens choose between different colored cards (one dark and one lighter gray) and rewarded them with food when they selected the darker card. He then had them choose between the dark card from the original pair and a new even darker card. According to SR learning, the chickens should’ve chosen the original dark card as that was associated with the reward, but the chickens chose the new darker card. This showed that the chickens didn’t learn to just choose the card they were trained on but to pick the darker card. They transposed their learning of the relationship principle of darkness to the new situations. This argued against SR learning that assumed humans and animals form rigid rules and associations between a stimulus and a response. Kihler proposed that learning can also involve understanding the relationship between two stimuli (darker or lighter than xyz).
Describe contributions of two women psychologists who were mentored by Kurt Lewin, Tamara Dembo and Bluma Zeigarnik.
Tamara Dembo
Contributed to the study of anger and frustration
Created conditions where participants were intentionally blocked in their tasks to induce measurable frustration
She was able to quantify emotional responses and demonstrate that frustration could induce aggressive behavior
Laid the groundwork for frustration-aggression theory
Bluma Zeigarnik
The Zeigarnik effect
Memory and task completion
Did experiments that showed that people are more likely to remember unfinished tasks than finished ones
Participants were asked to complete a series of simple tasks, but then were interrupted before finishing them
Found that participants had better recall of the interrupted tasks compared to the tasks that they had completed
This effect shows that unfinished tasks create of state of tension in our minds, which motivates us to complete the tasks
Mental processes are not passive, and are influenced by goal-directed behavior and task completed
Describe Kurt Lewin’s and colleagues’ research at the University of Iowa comparing authoritarian and democratic leadership styles and briefly summarize their primary conclusions.
Authoritarian Leadership
Groups were generally more productive when the leader was presenter due to there being clear direction, structure, and expectations but the atmosphere was tense and competitive. There was a high level of frustration among people and once the leaders left the productivity diminished significantly. People often expressed their feelings of resentment and dissatisfaction with the work/workplace
There was a dependency on the leader being present to boost productivity
Democratic Leadership
Groups were more satisfied and more engaged. They felt more valued and involved in the process. Which led to an overall cooperative and supportive atmosphere. Productivity was higher when the leader was there and wasn’t there. This suggests that with democratic leadership the workers have more long-term commitments and motivation to work
Laissez-Faire Leadership: “Let them do it” (not mentioned in book or in the question but important to note)
Lowest levels of productivity and engagement, lack of direction led to confusion and disorganization. Some people thrived under this condition, it overall was not a good type of leadership
Conclusion
The type of leadership significantly impacts a group’s productivity, creativity, and overall satisfaction. Thus, the democratic leadership style appeared to be the most effective as it showed consistently high levels of productivity and member satisfaction when the leader was present or not present. This laid the groundwork for other studies in the realm of social psychology and organizational behavior specifically regarding the importance of the type/style of leadership.
Identify and discuss examples of how Charles Darwin’s work specifically impacted the field of psychology.
His work shifted the focus in psychology toward understanding behavior and mental processes as adaptations to environmental challenges
HIs ideas about adapting to environments influenced early development of behaviorism, which was further developed by BF Skinner and others
His theory influenced the development of comparative psychology, which studies similarities and differences in behavior across species
Laid the groundwork for evolutionary psychology, which explores how human psychological traits are shaped by evolution
Had impacts on developmental psychology when he wrote about the development of his own son
Impacted emotional psychology by talking about how emotions and facial expression are a product of evolution and have various social functions. Later on, Paul Ekman studied facial expressions and their relation to emotions
Identify three published works of Darwin that were especially relevant to psychology. Briefly summarize the main content addressed in each of these published works.
“The Descent of Man” (1871)
He applied evolutionary theory to human beings, suggesting that mental faculties also evolved along with physical traits such as bipedalism and brain size
Humans have a common ancestor with other primates
Sexual selection in shaping human traits (mate choice)
“The Expression of the Emotions in Man and Animals” (1872)
Darwin explored how emotions are universal across species, suggesting that emotional expression has evolutionary roots
Human emotions and facial expresseions are rooted in evolution
Happiness, anger, sadness, and fear have a social function such as to communicate and bond with others
Ability to express emotions is inherited → emotions have an evolutionary significance
“A Biographical Sketch of an Infant” (1877)
An early observational study of child development, focusing on the growth and behavior of his own son (William Erasmus Darwin)
Darwin meticulously records the physical and mental milestones of his infant
Physical growth, emotional responses, language acquisition, cognitive awareness
Noting patterns of smiling, crying, and motor skills
One of the earliest works in studying child development which laid the groundwork for future research in developmental psychology
Briefly summarize Darwin’s contribution to the study of emotion and discuss its relevance to psychology.
Darwin believed that emotions and facial expressions were an evolutionary princess and that they were inherited. He also believed they served different social functions like communicating with others and bonding with others.
He wrote “The Expression of the Emotions in Man and Animals” in 1872. He explored how emotions are universal and have evolved as adaptive responses to challenges or events in the environment
His conclusions were based on observations but also anecdotal evidence (including his own studies of animal behavior and also basically doing a “case study” on his son)
The James-Lange theory of emotion: physiological arousal happens before the emotional experience
Darwin emphasized physical expression so emotions to inform the understanding of how emotions are processed and expressed
Identify at least three professional scientific contributions of Francis Galton and briefly discuss their significance to psychology.
First use of psychometric (questionnaires) in research
He used surveys to collect data on human characteristics, a method widely used in psychology today
He was the first to apply statistical methods to analyze human differences
He introduced statistical techniques to study individual differences, particularly in intelligence and mental ability
Invented the idea of the median and the concept of percentile
Can describe large data sets with measures of central tendency, correlations (Pearson’s r → one of Galton’s students), t-tests, regressions, etc
Laid the foundation for quantitative analysis of psychological data
First twin study
Galton pioneered twin studies to understand the role of heredity in human traits
Founder of eugenics:
Important to note: very unethical and went against basic human rights, deeply racist and terrible from the ground workings of it and through its actual implementation and practice in society
Influences on psychology (??????):
Studying individual differences in intelligence and behavior
Studying genetics in psychology, such as the gene by environment interaction (the interplay between genetics and environment), such that a psychological disorder is never 100% inheritable and also not 100% environmental. There are dispositions from each side
Describe and critically discuss James McKeen Cattell’s approach to mental testing. Identify examples of the types of tests utilized and discuss research findings of one of Cattell’s students assessing the predictive validity of these tests.
Aimed to apply the same certainty and exactness of the physical sciences to psychology through objective measurements of mental and physical attributes.
His approach laid the groundwork for standardized testing but was later criticized for oversimplifying the complexity of intelligence
Cattell’s mental tests were heavily influenced by anthropometric testing, which focuses on physical traits like reaction time and sensory discrimination as proxies for mental abilities.
Cattell established a laboratory in Columbia College where he applied these mental tests to psychology students, aiming to create a reliable method for measuring intelligence and cognitive function
Types of tests:
Dynamometer Pressure (grip strength)
Rate of Movement (moving the right arm 50 centimeters)
Judgment of 10 seconds time (determining when 10 seconds has passed)
Bisection of a 50 cm line (dividing a line in the exact middle)
Cattell’s student:
Clark Wissler used Pearson’s correlation techniques to measure the strength of the relationship between scores on different tests.
He found very low correlations on the tests and correlations between a student’s overall academic performance and their performance on Cattell’s tests, were just as poor.
Summarize the primary professional contributions of Psyche Cattell.
In the 1920s, as a statistical consultant, she analyzed data from the Harvard Growth Study to compare intelligence measures and track changes in intelligence over time.
In the 1930s Psyche Cattell developed the Cattell Infant Intelligence Scale, for infants as young as three months.
From 1939 to 1963 Psyche Cattell worked as a staff member and then Director of the Lancaster Guidance Clinic in Lancaster, PA.
Based upon her experience in Lancaster, and as one of the first unmarried women to adopt two children, Psyche Cattell wrote Raising Children with Love and Limits published in 1972.
Identify and summarize at least three psychological topics addressed by William James in Principles of Psychology.
Habit:
James argued that habit shapes behavior, promoting efficiency and reducing conscious effort
According to James, the nervous system has the property of plasticity and can be modified by experience.
For example: Someone calls out “Attention!” to a veteran carrying home his dinner.
The veteran, out of habit, instantly responds by bringing his hands down as if he were still in the military.
This reflexive action causes the veteran to drop his food into the gutter.
According to James, the key task of education is to train the nervous system to be an ally, not an enemy, by developing positive habits that guide behavior effectively.
Memory:
James defined memory as the ability to recall an event or fact with the awareness that it has been experienced before.
James believed that events and facts leave traces or paths in the brain, and the excitation of these paths results in a memory.
James held that memory strength is tied to the brain’s physiological structure, an innate characteristic unaffected by experience.
James argued that linking similar material can improve memory, but linking dissimilar material is less effective.
James conducted experiments, finding that memorizing new material interfered with recalling previously memorized material, demonstrating the limits of memory retention across dissimilar tasks.
Emotion:
Created James-Lange Theory shared with Carl Lange
Emotions arise from the perception of physiological changes in the body.
In response to emotionally stimulating situations, our bodies undergo automatic, reflexive changes (e.g., increased heart rate, faster breathing, sweating).
The theory suggests that we perceive these bodily changes first, and it is this perception that we label as the emotion.
Emotions follow physical responses: Instead of emotions causing the physical response, the physical changes occur first, and we then experience the corresponding emotion
Summarize William James’ view of consciousness and identify the characteristics of consciousness as described by James.
He introduced “stream of consciousness” and described consciousness as being personal, ever-changing, continuous, and selective.
Personal: Consciousness is unique to each individual. Your thoughts belong to you, and mine belong to me; there is no shared or group mind.
Ever-changing: Consciousness is in constant flux. We are always thinking, perceiving, and feeling in different ways, making it a dynamic and ongoing process.
Continuous: Consciousness flows like a stream. It is not broken into discrete pieces or isolated moments, as structuralist psychologists suggested; instead, it is a seamless, unbroken experience.
Selective: Consciousness focuses on certain things while ignoring others. James described the world as a “blooming, buzzing confusion,” but through selective attention, we focus on specific sights, sounds, or sensations and filter out the rest.
