History Exam 1

Question 1

Francis Cecil Sumner

Answer 1

In 1920, he completed a doctoral degree in psychology at Clark University, and he spent much of his later career mentoring doctoral students at Howard University, producing 20% of all doctoral degrees in psychology awarded to African-Americans

Question 2

Kenneth Bancroft Clark

Answer 2

He conducted groundbreaking research on the effects of segregation on Black children that was influential in the 1954 Supreme Court decision declaring segregation in American schools unconstitutional.

Question 3

Eleanor J. Gibson

Answer 3

She conducted the classic “visual cliff” experiments in studies of depth perception in infant animals and children.

Question 4

Lucy Boring

Answer 4

She earned a doctoral degree under the mentorship of Edward Titchener, published research on peripheral color vision and learning in microorganisms, and edited her husband’s famous text on the History of Experimental Psychology.

Question 5

René Descartes

Answer 5

This 16th century French philosopher and mathematician is famous for his interactionist dualistic perspective on the mind-body relationship, and argued for both innate and derived ideas.

Question 6

John Locke

Answer 6

This 17th century British philosopher rejected the notion of innate ideas and noted there are two sources of ideas, sensations and reflections.

Question 7

Gottfried Wilhelm Leibniz

Answer 7

This 17th century German philosopher introduced the concept of monads, elements composing all being and activity and proposed a continuum of unconscious to conscious mental activity.

Question 8

Mary Wollstonecraft

Answer 8

In 1792, she published the first great work asserting equal rights for women, and unfortunately died at a young age.

Question 9

John Stuart Mill

Answer 9

He published an essay on The Subjection of Women (1869) that was influential in the movement for equal rights for women.

Question 10

François Magendie

Answer 10

This 19th century French physiologist conducted surgical experiments and discovered distinct functions of the spinal nerves, only to share the fame with a British physician whose lesser known discoveries predated his.

Question 11

Franz Joseph Gall

Answer 11

This Viennese physician is remembered for launching the study of phrenology.

Question 12

Paul Broca

Answer 12

This 19th century French physician described a speech area in the left hemisphere, still named after him.

Question 13

Herman von Helmholtz

Answer 13

This 19th century German physiologist studied physiology of the senses and was the first to measure the speed of nerve impulses.

Question 14

Identify and discuss examples of persistent questions and recurrent themes in psychology’s history.

Answer 14

Can psychology be a science of the mind and, if so, what are the methods? How science of the mind is possible, how can it be defined, and what should the methods be?

Relationship to mind and body: mind is in the brain- complete description of the relationship between brain and behavior and brain and consciousness eludes us

Nature versus nurture: genetic versus environmental constitution to the development of individual differences

Question 15

Throughout history, scientists and philosophers have debated whether psychology could be considered a science. Identify some individuals from history who advocated for or against this notion and briefly discuss each person’s perspective.

Answer 15

Auguste Comte: cannot be a scientific psychology, denied this possibility of a science of the mind

John Stewart Mill: there can be a science of mind, a model of the mind’s operations, and a method for studying its contents

William Wundt: expanded Mill’s ideas and established a science of psychology and develop methods that allowed classic questions of philosophy, “how do we perceive and come to have knowledge of the world”

Question 16

Identify and discuss examples of neglected and underrepresented groups in psychology’s history. Describe the contributions of at least three specific individuals from these groups in the early 20th century.

Answer 16

Women and people of color were neglected

Francis Sumner: race psychology, first black person to earn a doctoral degree in psychology, father of black american psychologists, produced 20% of all black PHDs in the field at his time, research cited in Brown vs Board of Education

Kenneth Clark: Sumner’s student, ranked first in class at Columbia in entrance exam. He and his wife here first black PhDs at Columbia, first black president of the APA

Eleanor Gibson: conducted the classic “visual cliff” experiments in studies of depth perception in infant animals and children

Mamie Phipps Clark, an African American psychologist, is best known for her work on the psychological impact of segregation on Black children. Along with her husband, Kenneth Clark, she conducted the famous “Doll Study,” which explored the internalized racism and self-esteem issues experienced by African American children when presented with dolls of different races. This research was instrumental in the Brown v. Board of Education. Established the Northside Center for Child Development in Harlem,

Question 17

Isaac Newton and William Harvey were two British scientists during the Renaissance era. Describe each of their major contributions to physics and biology, respectively. Discuss how their work influenced perspectives of future scientists, and indirectly influenced the development of psychology.

Answer 17

Newton: light can be refracted into its component colors and individual rays can be recombined to produce whiteness, showed valued of math as the language of science, “discovered” gravity and that the same force that makes an apple drop from a tree controls the tides of the moon
Later psychologists were able to break down thoughts into different components
Three laws of motion
Orbits of the planets as being elliptical
Application of scientific laws
Halley: human mind can understand the universe through the application of scientific laws

Harvey: observational and experimental methods, in 60 minutes 540 pounds of blood would be expelled by the heart, the heart doesn’t make blood but pumps it around the body. Showed that a biological system can be studied with the same rigor as physicists studied physical systems

Experiments on sheep, cut them and measured their heart rate as they were bleeding. There is a specific amount of blood in the body so it must be circulating. Applied the scientific method to the question about biology

Question 18

Define and differentiate Descartes’ views of innate and derived ideas.

Answer 18

Innate ideas: inborn and do not depend on experience (self, God, time, space, motion, geometric axioms), internally from the individual, we use rational thought to realize those innate ideas

Derived ideas: arise from experience, learned ideas (based on memories of past events)

Question 19

Summarize Descartes’ views of the human body. Define dualism and summarize Cartesian dualism.

Answer 19

René Descartes viewed the human body as a mechanical system governed by physical laws, similar to a machine. Descartes saw the body as a mechanical entity, but its actions could be guided and influenced by the immaterial mind, forming the basis of his mind-body dualism

Dualism: the mind (or soul) and body are separate and distinct entities

Cartesian: different principles and laws govern the actions of the body and those of the mind has obvious implications for psychology, the science of the mind

Question 20

The position of mechanism was supported by several people during the Renaissance era. Describe this position and state the relevant contributions of two mechanists.

Answer 20

All natural phenomena, including biological processes and human behaviors, could be explained by mechanical principles. This view saw the universe as a vast machine, operating according to fixed laws of motion, with everything in nature functioning like clockwork.

Descartes: He proposed that animals and humans (apart from the human soul) could be understood as complex machines. He famously compared the human body to a clock, with organs and muscles functioning like gears and levers. He suggested that the human body operates purely on mechanical principles, with the mind (or soul) interacting with the body through the pineal gland.

Borelli was a pioneer in applying mechanical principles to biology, particularly human movement. His work De Motu Animalium (On the Movement of Animals) laid the groundwork for biomechanics. Borelli analyzed muscular movements and the action of bones and joints using principles of mechanics, comparing them to levers and pulleys.

Question 21

Compare and contrast the positions of nativism, empiricism, and associationism. Name a key proponent for each approach and briefly summarize their perspective.

Answer 21

Empiricism: knowledge comes through sensory experiences, skeptical of innate knowledge, nurture
John Locke: If innate tendencies don’t exist, why are children afraid of the dark? The only things we innately fear are pain and loss of pleasure. Through experience we learn to avoid objects associated with either of these consequences
Mind at birth is a blank slate, we learn all of our knowledge through experiences
Behaviorism was influenced by this idea

Nativism: some knowledge or beliefs are innate (present at birth), nature.
René Descartes (1596–1650) is a prominent nativist. He believed that the human mind possessed innate ideas, such as the concept of God, mathematical truths, and basic logical principles. Descartes argued that these ideas were intrinsic to the mind and not derived from sensory experience

Associationism: ideas or responses are learned through association, through the presentation of two stimuli together at the same time.
David Hume (1711–1776) is a key proponent of associationism. Hume argued that the human mind operates by associating ideas based on principles such as resemblance, contiguity (closeness in time or space), and cause and effect. His work emphasized how habits and repeated associations form the foundation of human thought and memory.

Question 22

Summarize John Locke’s perspective on the mind at birth and discuss his views regarding the relationship between sensations and mental contents.

Answer 22

Locke’s theory is foundational to empiricism, which asserts that knowledge arises from sensory experiences rather than innate ideas. believed that the mind at birth is a tabula rasa, or “blank slate.” According to Locke, individuals are not born with any innate ideas (except for fear of pain and loss of pleasure) or knowledge. Instead, all knowledge and mental content are acquired through experience and sensory input over time.

Sensations: transforming energy in the external world (light, sound) into a neural signal

Reflection: considering information that has already entered the mind through sensory experiences at some earlier point in time

Ideas are either simple or complex
Simple ideas: we see at once both motion and color, softness and warmth, most basic and elemental units of thought, derived directly from sensory experiences or internal reflection, and they cannot be broken down into simpler components.
Complex: ideas come to be associated, formed by combining simple ideas. They can represent a more elaborate and abstract form of knowledge

Question 23

Identify two important operations of the mind according to Locke.

Answer 23

Sensations: transforming energy in the external world (light, sound) into a neural signal (cold, hot, bright, dim, hard, soft)

Reflections: considering information that has already entered the mind through sensory experiences at some earlier point in time, memory of our experiences, the contemplation of the sensations

Question 24

Define and summarize Locke’s views on primary and secondary qualities. Distinguish Berkeley’s views from those of Locke.

Answer 24

Primary qualities (Locke): the inherent attributes of an object that exist independent of the observer. These qualities are measurable and objective. Solidity, extension (size), motion, number, and shape, hardness of surface.

Secondary qualities: secondary qualities are not inherent in objects but are the result of the interaction between the object and the observer’s senses. These qualities depend on the perceiver’s experience. Color, sound, taste, and smell. Temperature is a secondary quality

Locke’s View: maintained that primary qualities exist independently of the mind, while secondary qualities are dependent on perception

Berkeley’s View: rejected this distinction (no primary qualities), arguing that all qualities are dependent on perception (everything exists because of our perceptions) and that no material world exists beyond what is perceived by the mind. The assertion that matter does not exist without a mind. If a tree falls in the woods and nobody hears it, does it really make a sound?

Question 25

Differentiate James Mill’s and John Stuart Mill’s views on mental association.

Answer 25

J.S Mill: adopted the empiricist position. Proposed the idea of mental chemistry, where associations could create new, emergent ideas that are more than just the sum of their parts, allowing for greater complexity and creativity in thought.

James: Complex ideas could combine with other ideas to form duplex ideas. Viewed mental association as a mechanical process, where complex ideas are straightforward combinations of simpler ones
Association is a linear process and the mind is a passive recipient of this process.

Key points: James Mill = passive view and complex ideas are built in a mechanical way from simpler ideas. JS Mill saw the mind as more creative or active, complex ideas are more than the sum of simple ideas

Question 26

Summarize the contributions of Alexander Bain and discuss their relevance to psychology.

Answer 26

Considered the closest to what we now consider a psychologist

Compiling case histories, devising tests of abilities and aptitude, founded the journal Mind (the first psychological journal ever published), consequences from learning (pleasant and unpleasant following random acts and movements)

Habits are of central importance

Important in shaping the field’s development, particularly through his work on associationism, the mind-body connection, and emotion theory. His emphasis on empirical research and the physiological basis of mental processes made him a key figure in the transition of psychology from a branch of philosophy to a scientific discipline.

His ideas then transitioned to Morgan’s to Thorndike’s ideas

Question 27

Identify three experimental techniques initially developed in the 18th -19th centuries that have been widely used to investigate brain function.

Answer 27

Ablation (surgical removal or destruction of tissue, typically used to study the function of specific parts of the body or to treat medical conditions) – Flourens

Electrical stimulation (applying electrical currents to different parts of the brain (specifically the motor cortex in dogs) - Fritch and Hitzig

Anatomic Staining: Cajal and Golgi

Question 28

Identify and describe research contributions of Hermann von Helmholtz to physiology. Discuss the impact of his work on the emergence of experimental psychology.

Answer 28

In the 1850s, Helmholtz discovered Young’s theory and with the English physicist James Clark Maxwell, tested it experimentally. They found, as Young’s theory predicted, that subjects could match a light of any color (hue) with some combination of three lights of the primary colors. This theory of color vision has come to be known as the Young-Helmholtz Trichromatic Theory. (p. 116)

Invention of the ophthalmoscope: examine the retina under direct illumination

Published: Physiological Acoustics and Optics, an influential theory of color vision

Young-Helmholtz Trichromatic Theory: explains color vision by noting that any color of light can be viewed as a mixture of red, green, and blue.

Hypothesized that different sensory structures are differentially activated by those three colors of light

Most brilliant contribution: research on neural conduction

Experimentation and speculation about electricity and the nervous system

His work showed that mental processes are not abstract or instantaneous but have a measurable basis in physical and physiological events. This bridging of biology and psychology was crucial for the emergence of psychology as a rigorous, empirical science.

Question 29

Discuss reasons for initial successes and eventual failures of phrenology. ADDED DURING CLASS DISCUSSION Despite these failures, discuss at least three lasting influences of phrenology on psychology.

Answer 29

Reasons for Initial Success
Innovative Ideas
Brain Localization
Popularization
Public Appeal
Systematic Approach
Organized Framework
Cultural Context
Reform Movements

Reasons for Eventually Failing
Lack of Empirical Support
Scientific Rigor
Inconsistent Results
Reliability
Advancements in Neuroscience
New Techniques
Criticism from the Scientific Community Rejection
Misapplication and Misinterpretation
Misuse

Individual differences (and in their own right are worthy of their own exploration)
Psychological characteristics are measurable and quantifiable constructs
Brain is the organ of the mind and the object of study for psychology, can have localized mental functions (behavior, mental processes, behavior)

Question 30

Describe the contributions of Pierre Flourens to the study of brain function.

Answer 30

Pierre Flourens (1794–1867) was a French physiologist whose work made significant contributions to the study of brain function, particularly in the understanding of brain localization and the role of different brain regions. Here are his key contributions:

Ablation Studies: best known for his pioneering use of experimental ablation (lesioning) in animal studies. He systematically removed or destroyed specific parts of the brain in various animals, such as pigeons and rabbits, to study the effects on behavior and physiological functions.

Through these studies, Flourens demonstrated that certain brain functions are localized to specific areas. For example, he identified the role of the cerebellum in coordination and balance and the involvement of the cerebral hemispheres in sensory perception and motor control.

Brain Localization
Critique of Phrenology
Role of the Cerebellum and Brainstem

In summary, Pierre Flourens’ contributions to the study of brain function include his innovative use of ablation techniques to explore brain localization, his role in challenging phrenological theories, and his insights into the functions of the cerebellum and brainstem. His work established important principles for the study of brain function and greatly influenced the field of neuroscience (Veronica, but also p. 131-135)

Question 31

Summarize the concept of localization of brain function. Describe 19th century research that supported or failed to support this concept.

Answer 31

Localization of brain function is the idea that specific areas of the brain are responsible for particular cognitive processes, behaviors, or physiological functions. This concept suggests that different regions of the brain are specialized for distinct tasks, such as movement, sensation, language, and emotion. The idea is fundamental to understanding how the brain operates and how various functions are mapped to specific brain regions.

Supported
Flourens
Fritsch & Hitzig
Broca: His work suggested that language production was localized to a specific part of the brain, marking a major breakthrough in the understanding of brain function.

Failed to support
Gall
Flourens critique of his own work: His findings suggested that mental functions, such as perception, coordination, and intelligence, were not strictly localized to specific areas but rather distributed across the brain. Flourens concluded that the brain worked more as a whole, a concept that challenged strict localization theories.

Question 32

Identify 19th century scientists who developed and implemented brain stimulation methods to study brain function. Summarize their primary research contributions.

Answer 32

Fritsch and Hitzig were among the first to systematically apply electrical stimulation to the brain to study its functions. Their work involved using a galvanic battery to apply electrical currents to specific areas of the cerebral cortex in dogs.

L. N. Simonoff: in 1860 he published an account of an operation in which electrodes were implanted in the brainstem.

David Ferrier: conducted a series of brilliant experiments, using stimulation and ablation, to localize both sensory and motor functions.

Question 33

The historical origins of modern psychology include the writings of many influential Renaissance philosophers, as well as numerous discoveries and technological advances in physics and physiology during the Age of Enlightenment and the Scientific Revolution. Write an informative essay highlighting key contributions from these fields that arguably led to the emergence of psychology as a formal discipline of scientific inquiry. Defend your position by detailing specific contributions from at least four individuals who lived and worked during this time period (15th to 19th centuries).

Answer 33

René Descartes (1596–1650): The Mind-Body Problem and Dualism
A French philosopher, mathematician, and scientist, is often considered one of the fathers of modern philosophy
Contribution to psychology lies in his dualistic view of the human mind and body, which he famously articulated in his work “Meditations on First Philosophy” (1641)
Mind and body are distinct entities that interact with one another, proposing the idea of a “mechanical” body controlled by a “rational” mind, concept of the pineal gland as the site of interaction between the two
Laid the groundwork for later debates about the nature of consciousness, free will, and the relationship between mental states and physical processes. His mechanistic view of the body also influenced later physiological studies of behavior, encouraging an approach to understanding human actions as results of mechanical and physiological processes

John Locke (1632–1704): Empiricism and the Tabula Rasa
English philosopher and physician, significantly impacted psychology with his empiricist view of knowledge
An Essay Concerning Human Understanding (1690)
Locke introduced the concept of the mind as a tabula rasa, or blank slate, upon which experiences write
Knowledge is derived from sensory experiences, countering the idea of innate ideas posited by rationalist philosophers like Descartes
aid the foundation for later psychological research methodologies that prioritize observation and experience.
Importance of learning and environment in shaping human behavior, paving the way for behaviorist theories that dominated psychology in the early 20th century.
Mind develops through experience- psychological phenomena could be studied and understood through systematic observation

Immanuel Kant (1724–1804): The Synthesis of Rationalism and Empiricism
German philosopher- rationalist and empiricist ideas
“Critique of Pure Reason” (1781)
Knowledge begins with experience and not all knowledge arises from experience.
Introduced the concept of “a priori” knowledge which is inherent and structures our experiences
The mind actively organizes sensory data into coherent experiences through innate categories of understanding
His ideas bridged the gap between the nature versus nurture debate, suggesting that both innate mental faculties and sensory experiences are crucial to understanding human cognition
He influenced subsequent psychological theories on perception, cognition, and the mind’s active role in interpreting the world
His philosophical insights helped shape the epistemological and methodological foundations of the discipline.

Hermann von Helmholtz (1821–1894): Physiological Psychology and the Measurement of Perception
German physicist and physiologist, made groundbreaking contributions to the understanding of sensory perception and neural physiology, areas critical to the development of experimental psychology
Did studies on the speed of nerve conduction and provided empirical evidence that mental processes have a measurable, physiological basis
Said that perception is not merely a passive reception of stimuli but involves complex interpretative processes
Helmholtz’s theory of unconscious inference posited that perceptual experiences are shaped by learned interpretations of sensory input
Did a lot of empirical research and quantitative measurement which established a scientific approach to studying the human mind