History and theory Flashcards
What is science based on?
Observation of facts
What is the problem of observation?
- theoretical framework and approach used in experiment
- problem of induction -> observations are limited and general assumptions are made
- theory- laden -> based on prior research
What does the discovery of Uranus demonstrate?
- theory placed before observation
- Newtonian laws predict orbit. Observation didn’t fit. Theory not rejected
What does the discovery of Neptune for objectivity?
- Theory needed to verify the observation
- Neptune not seen as own planet until observation
What is the myth of the given?
Mental states not directly knowable; based on prior concepts
What is needed to create a formal concept?
- meaning to understand concepts
- defined based on theoretical assumptions
What is needed for measures to be formed?
- measures needed to be constructed and selected
What is needed for observable data?
- must be analysed, collected and intepretated
What did early experiments do to try and be objective?
- Managed subjectivity -> Likert scales, limiting responses
- experimenter: using mechanical devices, standard procedures
- subject: limit responses-> stats -> ^ objectivity
What did behaviourists do to be more objective?
- direct observations removing subjectivity and observing behaviour clinically
State a critisim of the behaviourists observations
- Level of subjectivity: decisions of what to study and when to study
Define operationalism
define concept of interest by operation of measure
What are the characterisitcs of operationlism?
- objective definition of concept
- concept defined by measurement
- different operations define different concepts
Define convergence
using different measurements to measure the same thing
triangulate
What are the characterisitcs of convergence?
- overcome limits of specific methods
- use multiple operations and treats concepts as independent of them
State the criticism of convergence
treating concepts as different = assuming independent/event when they could go hand in hand
What is a benefit of replication?
- Overcomes limits of specific findings
What is the replication crisis?
publications robustness of various findings and methods questioned
What is the crisis in social psychology?
methodological: problems w experiments
relevance: validity and utility
theoretical basis: social behaviour not fixed
-no claims made about humans
What aspects of social nature add subjectivity to psychological experiments?
- demand characterisits; active particpants, not passive
- experimenter’s effect influence study
How do psychologists study mind?
Language -> descriptions -> formal concepts -> measurers -> data
What are descriptions used for in psychology?
draw mental map of mental terriorty
- represents object as thing & makes certain features relevant
What are descriptions?
- defines object of study and what data represents
- descriptions impact what’s measured
What are Metaphors used for in psychological descriptions?
- Metaphors feed into formal concepts and used as shared w others
- change overtime and have practical implications
- emotions used to be physical now describe feelings
Metaphors are…
selected from available options -> historical and cultural influence
What do metaphors encourage psychological descriptions to do?
- prompt further thinking alone similar lines
- metaphors reflect theoretical assumptions about phenomena
What is memory?
- Storage/ inscription of information
What is an example of descriptions reflecting theoretical assumptions?
- Darwin: Biological and Physiological
- Watson: Behaviourism
- Cognitiive Revolution: emotion cognition
What do descriptions reflect?
- theoretical assumptions
- ## change overtime as object of study changes
What is an example of conflating descriptions?
Learning vs Memory:
- learning previously meant:
- gaining new skill
- first stage memorisation
- gaining new knowledge
NOT formal concept if conscious process
Newer meaning:
- rats in mazes
- children in schools
- employees at work
What does behaviourism say about learning?
- Learning = adaptive behaviour
- Learning is a mental process not to be work produced different to behaviour memory
- knowledge and memory is behavioural not mental
What is a problem that occurs w metaphors and
- agreed descriptions, assumptions and
What did Woodworth argue psychology consists of?
- investigation of learning, it’s fundamental but no longer conscious process
What did Ebbinghaus believe memory to be?
- memorising as performance
- quantity of information
What did Bartlett believe memory to be?
- process not performance
- how we remember/distort meaningful information
- not learning or capacity to memorise natural info
What is the computer metaphor of memory?
- memory: encoding, storage, retrieval
- distinction between STM and LTM
- Memory is extended mind a discursive phenomenon
- written on paper
What is psychology’s aim?
- provide reliable and valid knowledge about mind and behaviour
- about subjects via scientific methods
What is the boundary-work in psychology?
- debunking pseudo-science
- constructing self around category of scientific vs non-scientific
What is psychology’s aim as a career?
- making a living, profit or difference & changing minds
- academic: teach, get published and funded
What is psychology’s aim as applied knowledge?
- provide knowledge useful to others
- satisfy demands of education, business and government
Define applied psychology
scientific psychology and real work interacting
How did Hall connect psychology and education?
- Mass education: compulsory, standard syllabi with exams. the first place research should help with
- bureaucratic desire: improve results
Why do businesses use psychology?
- mass production: business more efficient and profit due to modern consumerism
In what ways do businesses use psychology?
- Advertising: based on psychological suggestions, testing of adverts or creating wants and solutions in customers
- Psychological cooperation: focus groups
- Women and mouthwash used to advance business
How has psychology been involved with the government?
During WW1 psychology showed the usefulness of their knowledge
Propaganda: swaying public opinion
War efforts: mental tests personnel selection and treatments
education
What is psychology’s aim in reflecting wider society?
Base assumptions about what needs changing/ explanation
Explain how psychology influenced society in 1900s
- women less rational and hysteria prone:
psychological science state men more variable in their mental traits why men last longer
What did Calkins challange?
Hysteria hypothesis and now greater focus on social factors
Explain how psychology influenced how race was viewed in society
Eugenics -> Army test WW1: lower races were less evolved with lower intellect
How was psychological research challenged in 1920?
racism studied as social problem -> more focus on social problems
awareness of problematic language and social culture -> investigate how this can be challenged
