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Differential psychology Flashcards

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1
Q

What is differential psychology?

A
  • how we perceive ourselves and representation to other people
  • explain why individuals behave in such manner
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2
Q

What is Cronbach’s two disciplines of scientific psychology?

A

experimental psychology: manipulate conditions to see what happens
Correlation psychology: identify & measure patterns of nature not directly controlled

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3
Q

What are some criticisms of correlation psychology?

A
  • doesn’t acknowlege situations
  • constrains behaviour
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4
Q

Name a criticism of experimental psychology

A
  • some errors in model which are systematic
  • i.e individual differeneces
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5
Q

How is the correlational methodology used in psychology?

A

study genetics and developmental sources of individual differences in personality and intelligence

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6
Q

How is the experimental methodology used in psychology?

A
  • manipulate situation circumstances and observe how affects typical behaviour and performance
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7
Q

List 3 between-person differences

A
  • Physical
  • Demographic status
  • ## Psychological attributes
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8
Q

What is a domain specific difference?

A
  • Variance = differences create error in psychological experiments
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9
Q

Why is the variance and mean needed?

A
  • measure traits and compare difference to mean as distributed in population
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10
Q

How does Gottfredson define intelligence?

A
  • mental capability to reason, plan, problem solve, comprehend complex ideas and learn quickly from experience
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11
Q

What is personality?

A
  • individual’s characterisitcs of behaving, thinking, feeling
  • psychological mechanisms in a person
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12
Q

Why is it important to study variation and differences?

A
  • differences in personality & intelligence predict life outcomes
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13
Q

What are the difficulties in measuring individual differences?

A
  • characteristics not directly observed
  • reliability crisis
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14
Q

What is intelligence?

A
  • global concept allowing purposeful actions and thoughts
  • measuring unobserved concept
  • intelligence is what intelligence test measures
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15
Q

How is intelligence measured?

A

Classical Hierarchical Model:
g = generalised quality of intelligence
the increase in one type of intelligence causes the increase in the other

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16
Q

Name Cattell’s two different types of intelligence

A

Fluid
Crystalised

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17
Q

What is fluid intelligence?

A

Biological fixed cognitive capacities applied to anything
- Ability to do something
- processing power
- context free, applicable to anything

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18
Q

What is crystallised intelligence?

A
  • Acquisition of knowlegde and procedural skills
  • continuously improving
  • learning something new
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19
Q

What affects learning rate?

A
  • time spent learning
  • previous knowledge
  • fear of future
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20
Q

What is personality?

A
  • Individual characteristic style of behaving, thinking and feeling
  • infer pattern of traits from behaviour
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21
Q

How is personality measured?

A

Normative: indicate how much you agree w statement on Likert scale
Ipsative: choosing which statement appeals the most

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22
Q

How are personality and intelligence similar?

A
  • heriable, develop overtime
  • active conscious roles in development and constraint
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23
Q

How are personality and intelligence different?

A
  • no unitary personal capacity for personality
  • typical performance vs maximal performance
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24
Q

How are personality and intelligence tests used?

A
  • research -> description, prediction and explanation
  • Decision-making -> diagnosis and classification
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25
Q

What is the difference between quantitative change and qualitative change?

A

quantitative = change in magnitude
qualitative = change in nature

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26
Q

How does Mendel argue traits develop?

A
  • Genetically: parents passing to offspring
  • dichotomous traits
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27
Q

What is the difference between genotype and phenotype?

A
  • Genotype = what’s in the gene
  • Phenotype = what’s expressed in the world
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28
Q

How does genetics explain traits to be developed?

A
  • Dominant and recessive traits
  • Genotypes and Phenotypes
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29
Q

What roles do genes play in personality and intelligence?

A
  • psychological characterisitcs show genetic influence
  • genes and environments interact during development
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30
Q

What are the two continuous not dichotomous traits?

A
  • Polygenic = more than one gene contribute to trait
  • pleiotropic = one gene influence two unrelated traits
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31
Q

What role does environment and genes have on traits?

A
  • enviro affects gene expression -> affect development
  • genes and environment not independent
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32
Q

What are the requirements for differential research?

A
  • representative sample size
  • dependent on difficulty of population access
  • large sample size to maximise stats power
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33
Q

What did the Lothian Birth Cohort aim to look about intelligence?

A
  • How intelligence from child changes into adulthood and what causes those differences
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34
Q

What is the pre-psychology history of differential development?

A
  • different accounts of individual differences before formalised field
  • wanting to know why individuals differences occur
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35
Q

What did the early personality researchers develop?

A
  • lexical hypohthesis and idea personality encoded in language through traits
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36
Q

What did the early intelligence researchers develop?

A
  • measure and analyse psychological attributes
  • psychological characteristics are inherited
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37
Q

What is Galton’s great man theory?

A
  • greatness inherited and continues while others dies
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38
Q

What did Spearman develop?

A
  • factor analysis
  • reliability
  • general factor of ability
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39
Q

What did Binet develop?

A

IQ test

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40
Q

How is eugentics revelant to differential psychology?

A
  • Pioneers were eugenicists; used stats to demonstrate some races superior than others
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41
Q

What parts of Freud’s theory is still used today?

A
  • Dual process models: implicit/ unconscious + explicit/ conscious processing
  • projection
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42
Q

What are the basics of psychological measurements?

A
  • required ground truth or fixed quality that measurements can be derived from
  • uses ratio scales
  • dependent on making inferences rather that direct observations
  • measurement consistent and in-line with theory
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43
Q

What is an error in psychological measurement?

why/how?

A
  • operationalising psychological character has error
  • impacts of stochastic and systematic processes
  • interpretative disagreement
  • Bias in testing -> distort accuracy of test capturing target constructs
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44
Q

What is the difference between error and noise?

A
  • error/bias = mistake in something objective vs.
  • noise = aggregations of error
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45
Q

What is beneficial about understanding nosie?

A
  • examine impact of noise learn more about processes underlying them
  • allows minimisation
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46
Q

What is classical test theory?

A

foundations of psychometrics

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47
Q

What is the central tenet?

A
  • observed score = True score and error
    (true scrore includes test + individual item components)
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48
Q

What inferences do we need to make about results?

A
  • not all results mean the same
  • consider test content, populations etc before conclusions
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49
Q

What are psychometrics?

A
  • science of measuring psychological characterisitcs
50
Q

Name the two main criteria for psychometrics

A
  • reliability
  • validity
51
Q

What is the role of factor analysis in differential psychology?

A
  • correlation = measure of association
  • factor analysis = measure of association between many variables
52
Q

What determines the structure of tests?

A
  • a priori -> sub-tests within a test
  • a posterior -> factor analysis
53
Q

What is the origin of the type models?

A

the 4 humours

54
Q

What is the modern iteration of the types model?

A
  • Myers-Brig
55
Q

What are the benefits of the type models?

A
  • central tenet: people organised into discrete, discontinuous categories
  • intuitive, easy to grasp
56
Q

What are 4 criticisms of the type model?

A
  • lacks internal consistency
  • lacks test-retest reliability
  • lacks predictive validity
  • not credible in academic psychology
57
Q

What is an alternative type of model for personality?

A

Dynamic model

58
Q

What is the interactionist perspective on measuring personality?

A
  • personality traits reflect stable patterns of corresponding personality states
  • behaviour is product of trait-environment interactions
59
Q

What has the interactionist perspective of personality found?

A
  • varying more in own expression than between two people
60
Q

How was the trait model developed?

A
  • lexical hypothesis (personality encoded in langauge)
  • several adjectives then wittled down into 5 important ones
  • 5 factor model created
61
Q

What is a negative of the 5 factor model development?

A
  • subjectivity involved
62
Q

List the 5 traits in the 5 factor model

A
  • Openness
  • Conscientiousness
  • Extraversion
  • Agreeableness
  • Neuroticism
63
Q

What are 4 traits missing from the FFM?

A
  • Antisocial behaviour
  • Social dominance
  • Morality & religiosity
  • Psychopathology
64
Q

List 4 critiques of the FFM

A
  • created without underlying theory of personality
  • created from subjective methods
  • social desirability
  • broad trait definitions making lack of consensus + vary in models
65
Q

What could the lexical hypothesis alternatively point out?

A
  • more about socialisation than biology
  • derive 5 factors in other cultures but specifics differ
66
Q

What does each trait in the FFM predict?

A
  • High N and low A predict psychopathology
  • High C, O and low N predict educational achievement and work
  • Low A predicts higher income
    High C predicts health
67
Q

Why does the FFM work?

A
  • influence behaviour and life choices
  • definitions are psychologically relevant
  • social desirable behaviour rewarded
  • content overlap between items
68
Q

What does the FFM reflect?

A
  • biological contributions are relatively fixed and stable after 30
69
Q

What do the FFM cause causal influence on?

A
  • affect
  • behaviour
  • cognition
  • desire
    which all maintain stability; environment produces short-term variance
70
Q

What does the FFM not account for?

A
  • factors correlate
  • personality keeps changing
  • environment contributes to stability
    evidence for biological coherence is limited
71
Q

What are ABCDs?

A
  • traits comprised of
  • Affect: how we feel
  • Behaviour: what we do
  • Cognition: what we think
  • Desire: what we want
  • Personality traits present patterns of ABCD = consistent over situations, stable overtime and heritable
72
Q

Explain Narcissim using ABCD

A

Affect: extremely emotional
Behaviour: hypersensitive to heriarchy
Cognition: better than everyone
Desire: needs to be fulfilled

73
Q

How do we measure personality?

A
  • Personality inventories
  • self-report statements/adjective apply on scale
  • Projective techniques
  • Reactions/ responses interpreted by test administrator
  • free from reaction to ambiguous stimuli
74
Q

How are empirically designed objective tests designed?

A
  • match groups differing in some crucial way
  • administer tests to both groups
  • identify items distinguish sub-groups
  • clinical testing
75
Q

What are the limitation of questionnaire measures?

A
  • Inventory responses aren’t referenced behaviours
  • implicitly reflect social desirability
  • people lack insight on how others view them
  • interpretations are subjective and speculative
76
Q

What are the advantages of questionnaire measures?

A
  • information breadth
  • motivation to report
  • casual force
  • practicality
77
Q

How has self-presentation bias been avoided?

A
  • modify personality items to be more neutral
  • rephrasing variable to make it less social desirable & more honest
78
Q

What causes correlations to inflate?

A
  • ## measuring predictors and outcome using same method
79
Q

How effective are trait measures overall?

A
  • evidence suggests all trait measures are very good at population level
  • High re-tests reliability
  • self & informant reports correlate
  • different measures of same constructs correlate
80
Q

What are the downsides to trait measures overall?

A
  • Type measures are less good
  • all personality measures are less good than intelligence measures
81
Q

What is IQ?

A

A score on specific test following a normal distribution

82
Q

What is cognitive ability?

A

Used to refer to intelligence or used to refer to similar cognitive constructs

83
Q

How is intelligence distributed?

A

Normally distributed:
- mean of 100
- standard deviation 15

84
Q

What is a hidden assumption of intelligence?

A
  • intelligence is an inherent personal capacity, stable throughout life varying between people
85
Q

Name 5 ways intelligence can be measured

A
  • Vocabulary
  • Identifying sequence progressions
  • Short-term and working memory
  • Speed of simple processing
  • Ability to visualise transformation
86
Q

Name 4 challenges in intelligence measurements

A
  • Drop in from the sky
  • artificial, limited context and low real-world fidelity
  • Non-verbal IQ tests
  • testing situations are often intimidating
  • Some stress improves performance and some hinders
87
Q

What is the drop in the sky measurement?

A

intelligence tests
- extremely fast-paced questions
confounded w prior experience w related material

88
Q

What is missing from the drop in the sky tests?

A
  • self- insight and ability to understand
  • creativity
  • ability to carry out practical tasks
  • decision-making quality
89
Q

Why might intelligence tests not work well?

A
  • some more test-retest reliable than others
  • tap into different specific components of intelligence
90
Q

Why might intelligence tests work well?

A

All tend to correlate together
- Positive manifold/ Spearman’s g
- robust observation

91
Q

What are the two different views of intelligence?

A
  • one intelligence -> g loaded
  • many intelligences
92
Q

What is the modern consensus of intelligence?

A
  • Pattern of correlations -> 8 mid-level abilities independent of each other and g
    i.e, fluid intelligence, crystallised intelligence, general memory and learning
93
Q

What is the classical hierarchical model of intelligence?

A
  • variation in g causes variation in underlying abilities
  • underlying abilities arbitrary depending on test structure
94
Q

What is the Flynn effect?

A
  • Rise in IQ scores -> WWI soldiers intellectually disabled today
  • Charles Dickens never sold novels in pulp magazine
95
Q

What has caused the Flynn effect?

A
  • Education
  • Cultural saturation in abstract thinking
  • Better nutrition
  • Better healthcare
96
Q

Name 3 misconceptions of intelligence

A
  • fluid intelligence biologically limited capacity for processing info
  • crystallised intelligence = accuracy and amount of info available for processing things perceive and measure
  • Cant measure them discriminately
97
Q

What is development?

A
  • growing/shrinking in size or becoming more or less mature or emergence of something new over time.
98
Q

How can we examine the development of differences?

A
  • establish whether differences are stable
  • make a good prediction about something in one’s life later on
99
Q

What are the requirements for examining the development of differences?

A
  • Identify needed data
  • collect good sample
  • appropriate research design
100
Q

Name 2 developmental research designs

A
  • cross-sectional design
  • longitudinal design
101
Q

Name 5 disadvantages of a cross-sectional design

A
  • varying levels of sample selectivity
  • can’t evaluate prior influences on individual differences
  • cohort effects -> generational difference not accounted for
102
Q

Name 5 disadvantages of a longitudinal design

A
  • Limited to one cohort
  • high drop out rate
  • order effects -> retests effects
  • questions and measured get dated
  • age and time-of-measurement effects are tangled
  • time consuming and expensive
103
Q

List 3 advantages of cross-sectional design

A
  • Faster and Cheaper
  • fewer concerns around drop-out
  • enable bigger samples
104
Q

List 3 advantages of longitudinal design

A
  • measures change in indivduals
  • measures individual differences in change
  • evaluate prior influences on individual differences
105
Q

What was the Lothian Birth Cohort about?

A
  • Tested intelligence of every 11 yr old in Scotland and tested their cognitive ability later on
106
Q

What was the population representation for the Lothian cohort?

A
  • Focused on geographical proximity to Edinburgh -> sample was better educated on average and higher social class
  • eligible criteria
107
Q

List 5 extraneous variables which could affect the Lothian Birth Cohort?

A
  • social class
  • Education
  • Lifestyle between data collection
  • community, hobbies
  • Personality
108
Q

What kind of changes occur in the Lothian Birth Cohort?

A
  • Quantitiative
  • Qualitative
109
Q

What occurs in a qualitative change?

A
  • Simple difference in magnitiude with same mechanisms
  • needs common measuring rod used in same way
110
Q

What occurs in a qualitative change?

A
  • capacities appeared or disappeared
  • no common measuring rod
  • pervasive in childhood and young adulthood and life transitions
111
Q

What are the common patterns of change?

A
  • step like change
  • inverted U-shape
  • Continious increasing ability
  • continuous decreasing ability
112
Q

What is change and stability measured by?

A
  • mean-level
  • Rank-order
113
Q

What is mean-level?

A
  • Population level change
  • Do average trait scores increase or decrease
114
Q

What is rank-order?

A
  • Do relative standings change or stay the same in relation to others
115
Q

What other patterns of change can occur?

A
  • rank- order remain stable but variance increases]
116
Q

What change occurs in intelligence?

A
  • relatively stable over lifespan but declines in older age
  • affected by drop-out and decline
  • mean-level smoothed population level pattern miss a lot on individual differences
117
Q

what changes occur in personality?

A
  • changes relatively stable development over lifespan
  • maturation principle -> more conscientious, emotionally stable over lifespan
118
Q

What key biological components interact with genetics?

A
  • DNA, Chromosomes
  • Base pair, SNP, gene
  • Genotype and Phenotype
  • Shared and non-shared environmental effects
119
Q

What does Mendel reveal about genetic production?

A

parents have genetic potential to pass off traits to offspring
Dominant traits: expressed if relative gene inherited from 1+ parent
Recessive traits: expressed if only relevant inherited from both parents

120
Q

What is the problem with the Mendelian genetic work?

A
  • over-simplified for complex continuous characteristics for psychological characteristics
121
Q

How do we explore genetic influence in humans?

A

natural experiments

122
Q
A

Psychology 1B (3 decks)

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