History Flashcards
Why is knowing history important?
Knowing history will enable us to prevent us repeating past mistakes
What did George Santayana say/quote about history
He famously said, ‘those who do not know history are doomed to repeat it’
What about the character of Santayana indicated an inherent flaw about history
Santayana was a harvard professor, and in him saying this, it shows that:
Having good scientific roots are important when it comes to history
When from prestigious universities, your words are ‘important’
History is often based on authority because we have to believe someone –> potential to be flawed
Why is there a possibility that there is no such thing as ‘the history’ or the ‘historical truth’
GIve an example
Largely because history is written from different perspectives, so it is impossible to get an entirely objective perspective
I.e. finding books which tells the history of what happened after the 2nd world war from a western and eastern point of view –> differing perspectives depending on culture. As a result, there cant be an ABSOLUTE history
What is the role of forgetting and blending in memory in history
A main factor which can prevent an absolute history is the faultiness of both memory and also the presence of memory blending (when original info and misleading info can get blended together in the persons memory –> misinformation)
The interference by time, discussion, decay and forgetting and other later added (mis)information, can influence the miswriting of history–> hard to determine if the history written down is the actual history
What is presentist bias? Give examples
Presentist bias is the tendency to discuss and analyse past ideas, people and events in terms of the present
For example, when we have a negative perspective on looking at slavery in an era where the practice was acceptable, would be a presentist bias
Or viewing a traditional social structure as irrational, without considering that it may have been an efficient system that allows a community to survive
In other words, it is the invalid interpretation of the past using present day as a reference. Thinking about history only from the perspective of the present day
What is personal bias?
Personal bias refers to learned beliefs, opinions, or attitudes that people are unaware of and often reinforce stereotypes.
How can personal and presentist bias shape history
With regards to presentist bias, it emphasises the relevance of history to the present. Thus, things that don’t seem too relevant will be paid little attention –> excluding it from the ‘history books’ –> misleading portrayal of the past
Meanwhile, personal bias can influence history through influencing its reconstruction in accordance to the persons own preferences
What is the impact of Ibn Al - Haytham
He was also known as Alhazen
His most famous text which has been translated was ‘the optics of Ibn Al Haytham’
He helped discover the science of ‘optics’ and how we can see things
He helped revolutionise the study of optics and laid foundations for the scientific method
Discuss the bias/flaws present through the perspective of the west
Western perspective is the practice of viewing and presenting the world from a European or generally Western perspective. This limits our recording of history and understanding of other cultures
It focusses solely on the Western experience. As a result, it may lead to history having less of a focus on other cultures –> misrepresentation of history
What is zeitgeist? Give an example
Zeitgeist = ‘essence’ or ‘spirit’ of a particular time = ‘Spirit of the times’
In other words, it refers to the general intellectual, moral and cultural climate that is typical of an era
For example, the zeitgeist of England in the Victorian period included a belief in industrial progress
How does zeitgeist influence history?
Zeitgeist influences history as history will depict a certain period of time based on the zeitgeist of the time.
I.e. recognising the Victorian period as a period of industrial progress (becauuse that was the zeitgeist of the time)
How are names given to historical ‘facts’
Names typically evolve with tie, and are made much later.
I.e. WW1 was considered the Great war and the only war until WW2 occurred
Naming also relies on political ideological influences, as well as cultural/linguistic context
What is the general consensus of when Psychology started
Started with Wilheim Wundt when he established the first psychological lab in Lepzig in 1879. This is considered the official start of psychology as a separate and distinct scientific discipline
Often WIlliam James is mentioned as well
What is the flaw with asking when psychology started
However, the question is very open ended, and we can’t know the true answer.
Because for example, Wundt also had supervisors who also had supervisors, could they then be considered the start of psychology?
Additionally, a lot of other disciplines may be a part of psychology history. It’s not just limited to the formation of a psychological lab (i.e. trepanation)
Assess the statement that academic psychology is not the same as the start of ‘general’ psychology
This is because the general study of the mind (psychology) can be traced all the way back in history, for example to ancient philosophers who inquire about the nature of the mind, consciousness, and human behaviour, such as Aristotle, Plato and others. This can be considered the ‘general psychology’
However, the start of academic psychology (experimental psychology) wasn’t until Wilhem Wundt formed his first lab in 1879
What is the concept of structuralism?
Suggests that the goal of psychological research is to study the structure of the mind and consciousness.
Who was famous who supported structuralism?
Wilhem Wundt, and was built upon by his student Edward TItchener
How did Wilhem Wundt argue that structuralism should be studied?
Through a concept called introspection
What is introspection?
It is a technique to ‘look into the brain’ and its the search of the primitive experiences that constitute thought
How is introspection achieved?
Involves looking inward and examining one’s own conscious thoughts and experiences. By looking at the content of one’s own mind, you could gain insights into underlying structure of mental processes
Why was introspection complicated?
We had to name the building blocks of an object, which we might not have known the name of
Observers had to be highly trained
Looks at pure sensations; auditory, visual, tactile, and time
It is very subjective, and involves self reports on sensations, feelings, emotions etc.
Explain introspection through the example of a pencil
In this case, introspection would want the observer to describe the characteristics of a pencil, without reporting the name of the subject, but instead stating the ‘raw data’ such as the colour, hue, shape etc.
Who assisted Wundt in further spreading the idea of structuralism
His student; Edward Titchener(1867-1927), was a student of Wundt, and introduced structuralism and introspection to the americans
Why was William James at Harvard considered important?
Because he was considered the founder of functionalism, as opposed to structuralism, and was strongly against the structuralism concept
What was William James’ problem with the structuralist approach??
His issue with structuralism was that we have a ‘stream of consciousness’, and we can’t just freeze/divide curent thoughts to analyse them into little building blocks, as there is then still a continuous arrival of new thoughts that intefere.
Also he argued that structuralism was too subjective and was therefore unreliable
What is functionalism?
Argues that the structure of the mind might not be so important, but poses the question of what is the function/purpose of the mind and consciousness
What is the importance of academic networks and interactions?
These are important as it allows for knowledge exchange + collaborative research.
It is also important as in the academic world, most researchers need a supervisor –> interaction between academics.
In terms of Wundt, for example, he needed to have a supervisor, and his one was Ernst Weber; a german physician
What is the Just Noticeable Difference (JND). Give an example
This was discovered by Ernst Weber (1795-1978)
Suggests that the change in a stimulus that will be just noticeable is a constant ratio of the original stimulus. The JND is the minimum difference between two stimuli that is just detectable by a person
I.e. the JND between two stimuli is the function of the magnitude of the original stimulus - the larger the original stimulus, the larger the notiecable difference needs to be for it to be detected
I.e. if 5g is the noticeable difference between 100 and 105 grams, than for 1000 grams, it will be 1050 grams for the noticeable difference –> 50 grams –> proportionally increases
What is psychophysics?
It aims to quantitatively investigate the relationship between physical stimuli and the sensations and perceptions they effect –> making connections between matter and mind.
Who founded psychophysics?
The Godfather of psychophysics is seen as Gustav Theodor Fechner
but additionally, Weber and Wundt were important in psychophysics
What is the role of other disciplines in the history of psychology?
We have all these people in different fields such as philosophy, physics, medicine, who all have part of psychology in their field. The question rises then, are they part of the history of psychology?
If so, the history of psychology could actually go back further than Wundt
What is trepanation
Trepanation is the ancient process of creating a hole in the skull
What were the potential reasons for trepanation in ancient times?
Treatment of head injuries
Healing symptoms of diseases such as epilepsy
Ritual reasons
Spiritual reasons
To increase bloodflow and to prevent the development of degenerative diseases such as Alzheimers
LETTING OUT EVIL SPIRITS IN PEOPLE WHO WERE THOUGHT TO BEHAVE ABNORMALLY (MENTAL DISORDERS)
How can trepanation be considered part of the history of psychology?
LETTING OUT EVIL SPIRITS IN PEOPLE WHO WERE THOUGHT TO BEHAVE ABNORMALLY (MENTAL DISORDERS) –> in this sense, it can be considered part of the study of the mind –> history of psychology –> as far back as 6500BC
What is psychology?
It is the study of the brain, mind and behaviour
What does it mean by brain functions in the definition of psychology?
Neurobiological processes that generate mental processes and states
What does it mean by mind/mental processes in the definition of psychology?
Individual sensations, perceptions , memories thoughts, incentives, emotions and all subjective experiences
What does it mean by behaviour in the definition of psychology?
Variety of actions which can be observed
What are the biases about what lay people think ‘psychology’ is?
Lay people holds misconceptions mainly due to media portryals, pop culture, or maybe even spoiled by perspectives by Freud
Some lay people stereotype psychology as the ones simply focussed on analysing and fixing people’s problems when in reality it is the study of so much more, not just therapy
What is the role of Egyptians and other cultures in the history of psychology?
Egyptians wanted to find out the localisation in the brain/body –> wanted to find the source of the soul, the brain, and the source of thinking,
In Egyptian culture, the heart was considered the seat of the soul (Hegemonikon)
In their opinion, feelings, thinking etc. came from the heart not the brain.
Thus, during mummification, the heart stayed in the body, whereas the liver, kidneys. lungs, stomach were placed back or stored in jars next to the body
However, the brain wasn’t considered a very cruicial part –> brain was discarded in mummification. They knew it was important but not too important. This knowledge came from the Edwin Smith Papyrus
What is the Edwin Smith Papyrus?
It was said to be written by Imhotep. It was pieced together by Edwin Smith. Among other things, it was about the head wounds of soldiers. This led to the following conclusions:
Brain lesions lead to distal symptoms
left side of the brain controls right side of the body and vice versa
Brain is responsible for speech
Touching the brain can lead to epileptic seizures
It was important as it showed that even Egyptian cultures were looking at the localisation of the brain, and how there are areas that seem to be highly specialised in a specific task
How is the Edwin Smith Papyrus significant to psychology history?
It can be argued that this extends the study of psychology (brain, mind and behaviour), all the way back to Ancient Egyptian times
Over time, how did our understanding of the localisation of the brain develop?
Frontal lobe = thought, planning, movement
Parietal lobe = touch, spatial relations
Temporal lobe = hearing, memory
Occipital lobe = vision
Who first described the idea of ventricles
Herophilus of Chalcedon, around 300BC described the ventricles
What are the different types of ventricles, and what are they?
Lateral ventricle = the largest ventricle with one on the left and one on the right (#1 & #2)
Third ventricle = the one in the centre
Fourth ventricle = the one below the other 3 ventricles
Why was the discovery of ventricles important?
Provided a milestone in the anatomical understanding of the brain. It also led to the 3 cell doctrine
What was the 3 cell doctrine?
There existed 3 cells in the brain:
Cell 1 = collection of information from senses
Cell 2 = cognition / thinking
Cell 3 = memory
What is functional localisation?
It is the idea that certain bodily functions are controlled by certain locations/areas within the brain
What is double dissociation?
Experimental technique by which two areas of neocortex are
functionally dissociated by two behavioral tests, each test being
affected by a lesion in one zone and not the other. In a series of
patients with traumatic brain injury, one might find two patients, A
and B.
This is the demonstration that two experimental manipulations each have different effects on two dependent variables; if one manipulation affects the first variable and not the second, the other manipulation affects the second variable and not the first.
Explain Broca’s area, and the story behind it
Here, Paul Broca (1824-1880) had a patient called “Tan”, whose real name was Mr Leborgne
Tan had lost speech and motr function but language comprehension was intact
Upon further investigation, it led to the discovery of Broca’s area which controls speech function
Explain Wernicke’s area, and the story behind it
Wernicke’s patient talked and talked but it didnt make sense. Speech production was intact, but language comprehension was gone
Thus, led to Wernicke’s area –> language comprehension
Who else worked on the functional localisation issue?
Jean Pierre Flourens worked on this issue.
He tested Gall’s ideas of localisation by lesions in living animals (rabbits, pigeons), and discovered:
When he removed cerebal hemispheres –> perception and judgement gone
Removal of cerebellum –> problems with motor coordination
Removal of brain stem –> death
What is phrenology?
It is the study of the shape and size of certain parts of the cranium as an indication of character and mental abilities
(belief that the shape and size of the skull reveal insights into personality traits, intelligence etc.)
I.e. if you find the ‘math bump’ or ‘language bump’ it shows that you have a flair in that certain subject
Who were the founding fathers of Phrenology
Franz Josef Gall. Gall assumed that the surface of the skull faithfully reflects the relative development of the various regions of the brain
Additionally, his student Sparzheim also spread the message of phrenology
How was phrenology influenced by the zeitgeist of the time?
Rise of materialism: Phrenology fit with this by proposing a tangible connection between structure of brain and mental attributes
Popularity of self help treatments: phrenology focuses on self and personal development –> Fueled with popularity of self help. People were eager to find ways to enhance their lives, and phrenology offered a scientific, systematic approach to understanding oneself
Explain the case of Phineas Gage
In 1948, Phineas had a workplace accident, where an iron tamping rod entered and exited his skull
He survived but it is said that his personality changed as a result –> not organised, foul mouthed
This led to a greater understanding of brain regions involved in personality, namely the frontal lobe. It seems to show that even personality is localised in the brain
What is lobotomy?
It is a surgical procedure where the nerve pathways in a lobe or lobes of the brain are severed from those in other areas.
Lobotomies became popular in the 1930s as a treatment for certain mental health conditions. Doctors performed this procedure on people with conditions such as schizophrenia and depression.
Explain the idea of plasticity
When an individual has only one hemisphere of the brain (hemispherectomy) or a significant portion of one hemisphere is removed due to medical reasons such as severe epilepsy or brain tumors, the remaining hemisphere can undergo remarkable plastic changes to compensate for the lost functions. This phenomenon is known as hemispheric plasticity and highlights the brain’s remarkable ability to reorganize itself in response to injury or structural changes.
Here’s how plasticity in the remaining hemisphere can manifest:
Functional Reorganization: The remaining hemisphere may undergo functional reorganization to take over the tasks and functions previously performed by the missing hemisphere. For example, language functions typically lateralized to the left hemisphere (in most right-handed individuals) can partially or fully shift to the right hemisphere following a left hemispherectomy. This reorganization can involve recruitment of adjacent brain regions or existing neural pathways to compensate for the lost functions.
Compensatory Mechanisms: The brain may employ compensatory mechanisms to offset deficits resulting from the loss of half a hemisphere. This could involve enhancing the efficiency of existing neural circuits, increasing connectivity between distant brain regions, or adopting alternative strategies to perform cognitive and motor tasks.
Plastic Changes in Connectivity: Following hemispherectomy, the remaining hemisphere may undergo changes in structural and functional connectivity to adapt to the altered brain architecture. These changes can include the growth of new synaptic connections, rewiring of existing neural pathways, and alterations in neurotransmitter systems to support adaptive functioning.
Behavioral Adaptations: Individuals who have undergone hemispherectomy often demonstrate remarkable behavioral adaptations, including improvements in motor function, language abilities, and cognitive skills. These adaptations reflect the brain’s capacity to compensate for structural deficits through plastic changes in neural circuitry and functional organization.
What is the fMRI?
It is the functional magnetic resonance imaging, and it measures brain activity by detecting changes associated with blood flow in the brain.
How can fMRI be considered modern phrenology?
So many fancy fMRI scans showing which parts of the brain are active while ‘listening to music’ or ‘speaking a second language’ - it gives us important clues about how the brain divides tasks, but it doesn’t tell us much about how the brain works.
Can the brain be established as a network of highly specialised areas?
Yes, especially seen in the past such as Gage, Broca’s area and Wernicke’s area
What do lay people think psychology is?
People who reads other minds
All about the thereauputic side
What is psychology?
It is the study of the mind and its mental processes
What are some examples of psychology?
Biological psychology
Sport psychology
Forensic psychology
Personality
Social psychology
Mathematical psychology
and many more
What are the 3 main categories of psychology and their levels
Social –> cultural, interpersonal
Individual –> Individual differences, perception & cognition, behaviour
Biological –> brain systems, neurochemical, genetic
What is studied in the cultural level?
Norms, beliefs, values, symbols ethnicity
What is studied in the interpersonal level
Groups, relationships, persuasion, influence, workplace
What is studied in the individual differences level
Personality, gender, developmental age groups, self concepts
What is studied in the perception & cognition level
Thinking, decision making, language, memory, seeing, hearing
What is studied in the behaviour level
Observable actions, responses, physical movements
What is studied in the brain systems level
Neuroanatomy, animal research, brain imamging
What is studied in the neurochemical level
Neurotransmitters and hormones, animal studies & drug studies
What is studied in the genetic level
Gene mechanisms, heritability, twin and adoption studies
What is demarcation?
It refers to the boundary between scientific and unscientific. How do you establish this line?
What is the proposed definition for ‘good science’
Typically follows the scientific method