historical inquiry/material cultures

Question 1

expressions of ideology- art and arch

Answer 1

hagia sophia- byzantine
tang dynasty- dunhuang cave tempels
maya civilisation- stelae at copan and penalque, limestone carving
coinage too

Question 2

hagia sophia

Answer 2

Commissioned by Emperor Justinian I and completed in 537 CE, Hagia Sophia epitomizes Byzantine architectural grandeur. Its massive dome and intricate mosaics symbolize the fusion of imperial authority and Christian theology.

Question 3

hagia sophia ideologicla isgnif

Answer 3

The structure served as a physical manifestation of Justinian’s claim to both politica l and spiritual leadership, reinforcing the concept of caesaropapism. The integration of religious iconography within an imperial setting underscored the unity of church and state.

Question 4

tang dynatsy dunhuang cave temples

Answer 4

china
Mogao Caves at Dunhuang, developed primarily during the Tang Dynasty (618–907 CE), comprise a vast complex of Buddhist cave temples adorned with murals and sculptures

Question 5

ieaological signif dunhuang cave tempels

Answer 5

caves reflect the Tang state’s endorsement of Buddhism as a means to legitimize imperial power. The artwork portrays the emperor as a Buddhist sovereign, aligning the dynasty with divine authority.

Question 6

maya civilsiation stelae at copan and palenque

Answer 6

Maya cities like Copán and Palenque erected intricately carved stelae depicting rulers in elaborate regalia, often accompanied by hieroglyphic texts.

Question 7

stela mayan ideological isgnif

Answer 7

monuments served to legitimize royal authority by linking kings to deities and ancestors, reinforcing their divine right to rule. The stelae functioned as public records of dynastic lineage and significant events.

Question 8

patricular staela example

Answer 8

• Limestone carving- from Mexico 700-750 ad
  o Shows blood letting exercise, pulling rope through women tongue containing large thorns
   Scene of kiga nd wife together in devotional partnership, jointly perfomrimng a ceremony of fundamental signif for their position and their power
   Piety
   Rising from bowl of blood- sacred serpent
   Qncient trad
  o Commissioned by the king for the queen sprivate building

Question 9

presentation of rulership of stela

Answer 9

o Wealthy- both kning an wife hearess probs mad
o e of jade and shell mosaic and decorated with shimmering green wfeathers of the questzal bird
o Top of king headdress see shrunken hea of past sacrificial victim
o On brast ornament shape of sun god

Question 10

coinage

Answer 10

instruments of politcial and religious messaging
byzantine coinage under heraclius
ummayad caliphate- and al malik, mu’awiya too
merovingian francia
gold coins of kumaragupta I

Question 11

byzantine coinage

Answer 11

Emperor Heraclius (r. 610–641 CE) introduced significant changes to Byzantine coinage, including the depiction of his own image alongside his sons and the addition of religious symbols.- cross

Question 12

ideological signif of byzantien oingae

Answer 12

coins propagated the concept of a divinely sanctioned imperial family, emphasizing dynastic continuity and the emperor’s role as God’s representative on Earth.

Question 13

umayyad caliphate coimage

Answer 13

: Caliph Abd al-Malik (r. 685–705 CE) implemented reforms that replaced images on coins with Islamic inscriptions, standardizing coinage across the Umayyad Caliphate.
 Fully abandoned ‘figural imagery and languages’ of pre islamic coinage
 In order to adopyt distinctively islamic practice calligraphy

Question 14

change from previous coins abd al malik

Answer 14

 From 670s onwards, greater organisation and ocnsistsnecy seen w coinage
 Mu’awiyah appear on coin as ‘commander of the belivers’
 Awareness of power prop in everyday obects
 Gov authority over mintingd

Question 15

detail on abd al malik coin

Answer 15

 Two arab silevr coins
change to caligraphy 697 ad
shows permemnt transformation of middle east to an islamic political and religious system
including quaranic messages - ‘there is no god except god alone’

 Before m, Arabic barely a written lang but vital need to record gods words accurately so the first developed Arabic script kufic script created

Question 16

what did islamic coinage change show

Answer 16

friom  On coin lins below his waist represent a whip- I mage to insnpire fear and respect
 Letter from one of his governors coorrpobate- ‘the commander of believers, aman with no weakness, from ehom rrebels csn expect no indulgene
 On the one who defied him falls his whip
to clligraphy-  Dominant power in empire not emperor but word of god

Question 17

merovingiain francia

Answer 17

Merovingian dynasty (5th–8th centuries CE) produced distinctive coinage that varied regionally, often featuring local rulers and Christian symbols.
* Ideological Significance: These coins reflect the decentralization of power and the role of Christianity in legitimizing local authority.

Question 18

gold coins of kumaragupta i

Answer 18

• 414-55 from ihndia
   Insciprton kumaragupta deservedly victorious with an absundance of vritues
• First ocin where normally expect king, horse magnfiicant standing stallion decorated w ribbons, great pennant fluuteters over head
  o Around coin in sanskit insciprtion that ranslates as ‘king kumaragupta the supreme lord, who has conquered his enenies’
  o Part of pre-hindu ritual
   Where stallion seleted ritialy purified, roam for year, ceremonies and then killed by king himself using golf knife infront of audience
   Other sde is king kumaragupta w peacock not riding it, instead offer sgrapes to his god sacred bird

Question 19

lore begind kumaragupta

Answer 19

same tiem also building on hindu praties building temples
 Part of emprie building and legit like Constantine and chrisitianity
 For gupta kings worshp of hindu gods one of ways divine apprehended and embraced
 Thus on later cin selected kumara god of war
* Naked to waist holds spear mounted on sacred peacock- aggressive and terrifying bird riding to war
* Standing on a plinth- looking at an image not of a god but of a studtue of the god as would have ben seen in a temple
 Suggests has special relationship and favour from god , longing for personal collection

Question 20

manuscripts and pottery as cultural indictaors

Answer 20

insular manuscro[t
tang dynasty sancai ware potetry
east anglia
moche warrior pot

Question 21

insular manuscrpt

Answer 21

Book of Kells (Ireland)
* Overview: The Book of Kells, created around 800 CE, is an illuminated manuscript containing the four Gospels, renowned for its intricate artwork and symbolism

Question 22

signif book of kells

Answer 22

The manuscript exemplifies the fusion of Christian iconography with Celtic art, reflecting the syncretic culture of early medieval Ireland.

Question 23

tang dynasty pottery

Answer 23

Sancai Ware Pottery (China)
* Overview: Tang sancai (“three-color”) glazed pottery, often featuring vibrant green, yellow, and white glazes, was used primarily for tomb figurines and vessels.

Question 24

tang dynasty pottery signi

Answer 24

These ceramics indicate the Tang elite’s emphasis on the afterlife and their engagement in trade, as similar wares have been found along the Silk Road.

Question 25

east anglia potetry

Answer 25

- Indicate expansion and spread of English settlement - The angles skilled in use of shallow veseos and sluggish ea rivers highways into heart of Britain - Nene ouse cam first part county coccipied - Wheel thrown birtish pottery ives way to crude hand coiled pots with thcj walls and poor glaze

Question 26

moche warrior post peru

Answer 26

- Moche prob first real state structure whole south smerics - Array of them inc warriors, priests,owl bat – jugs o Pottery represnettaioin of mocche universe - Sheer quantity of posts survive suggest oche soc must have operated on considerable cale- industry w trainig mas sproduction and distribution

Question 27

examles moche pots

Answer 27

- One pot showing moche fishermn in large boat catching tuna- did do - Celebration of war and warriors o Fighting for moche v strong ritual aspect to it o Jug holding club o Decorated clothes young man high status - Pots seem to have been made entirely for burials and sacrifice

Question 28

moche pots inform us on social

Answer 28

- 7thc pots stoopped no written records telling us why o Thought to be climat ehcnage o Severl decades intense rain followed by drought dupset deliate echolog- destor agri

Question 29

arch fill gaps textual sources

Answer 29

hinton st mary mosaic sutton hoo trumoington cross movement of peoples around engalnd and from Europe slavic europe moche pot

Question 30

slavic europe problem and evidence

Answer 30

* Problem: Lack of written Slavic sources before Christianisation. * Evidence: o Settlement archaeology: Longhouses, village layouts. o Burial patterns: Male warrior graves with weapons; later Christianised burials without grave goods. o Pagan sanctuaries: E.g. Rethra (described later by Adam of Bremen).

Question 31

slavic europe histyorical value o

Answer 31

Maps Slavic expansion and cultural change. o Burial customs show shifts in belief and social hierarchy.

Question 32

sutton hoo

Answer 32

Ship burial in Suffolk, England, dating to early 7th century. * Evidence: Rich grave goods (gilded helmet, shoulder clasps, silverware from Byzantium), pagan symbology, possible royal identity (linked to Rædwald of East Anglia part of wuffing dynasty clamimed descent from woden germaic god sacrificed left eye for knowledge

Question 33

sutton hoo value

Answer 33

o Shows early kingship was militaristic, wealthy, and connected to international trade o Contradicts textual narratives of Anglo-Saxon England as culturally stagnant. o Suggests ongoing prestige culture and elite craft traditions.

Question 34

how sutton hoo shows connected to inetrnat trade

Answer 34

 Hellmet scaninavia, ship cont gold conis France, celtic hanging bowls from west of Britain, imperial table silver Byzantium garnets nay have come form idnia or sri lanka sword ornament inc Frankish cement  Coptic bowls from Egypt distribution pattern interpreted either as commercial exchange laong eruoepan rivers or as redistribution via Merovingian courts  Silver spoons contact w chirtsian world

Question 35

bede history

Answer 35

- Almost all that we know of ea history before 9th c comes either from bede or from hagiography o Bede 8thc wrote that rendelsham was I nthe province of the east angles when the east saxon king swithhelm was baptized there around ad 655

Question 36

byzantine link in sutton hoo

Answer 36

o Back of plate impressions of byzantine control stamps  Monogram on hexagonal stamp from eiher emperor annatsius I or emperor justinian I, likely anastsaisus as his name inscribed in identical atteer on other siler stanmps as well as one ocins  491-518 silersmith doe

Question 37

sugtton hoo chirtsinaity

Answer 37

o Dating of coins 625 ad o Some of the silver bows found in chamber feature cross shaped decoration, possibly suggesting a Christian origin o Pair of silver spoons bear name ssaulos and paulos appear to be ref toeth chirstian story of the conversion of saul to the road to damascsu o Although burial of great man in a ship surrounded by his regalia clearly pre0criatin ritual

Question 38

sutton hoo buried

Answer 38

o Unknown o But know was someone buried there due to high phosphate levels in sand below burial chamber solevd chemical analysis o Thought to be king raewald- great king of east Anglia also famous for victory over kingdom of Northumbria and criic for establishing latars for christ and old gods side by side o Know man – indicated from leadther shoesm bone combs, frgaments of a shrt of mail and an iron axe

Question 39

internal divisons in uk

Answer 39

o Whilst broader arch shows- huggett steep fall off of certain improst glassware wehall truned pottery crystal balls amethyst beads some 50km north of kent suggests an internal boundary or political frontier across which imported rarely travelled o Northern frontier of trinovantes is considered to have run along watershed of suffolk downs as curve ne from chilterns towards framlingham (diff between east angles and east Saxons)  Line is based onsdistributions of late pre roman iraon age and early roman period coins  Coin distributions also supported by other styels of late iron age/early roman material

Question 40

dress styles diff anglian and saxon

Answer 40

* Angglian- wrist claspps gusset plates and 9 brooch styles- inc cruciform annula and swaure headed * Not absolute – preseume a greater mizing of people than suggested by bede o Saxon territory of ipswitch- two of cemeteries of 6th and early 7thc are angki o Boss hall cemetary charicteristocally Anglian writst clasps and crciforms o While hadleigh road cemetery has produced some 8 anglian square headed brooches o Unkwone whether orwell and deben rivers under east saxon or east Anglian political control

Question 41

trumpington cross

Answer 41

o Bed burial girl , one of earliest conversts to Christianity in England  Part of elite group fo women fmoved euorpe o 7thc o W cross garnets india/asia, gold, French style o Whilst her teeth and isotopic analysis indicated moved from southern Germany to England when about 7

Question 42

geog/climate driving moevemnt

Answer 42

o Expansion from agri rev  Distribution of cemetaries and finds by date indicate enroumous growth in area of settlement  Large travt of clay upland in west stripped of forest and ploughed  Some silt fenlands im m camb re-colonised  Field patterns began to take shape familiar from doomsday book * 2 or 3 open fields, one lying fallow others divided into furlong strps of ridge and furrow allotted among the peasantry * Deliberate realignment of fields throughout camb in 9thc

Question 43

arch danish invasion

Answer 43

* Arch evidence emphasises continuity of English occupation * Onyly toft and bourne Danish place names * Isle of el leal unity 974 a an area over which abbot exclusive jurisdiction * Saw cont of building pairsh boundires and churches * With ely cathedral containing outstanding eample of late saxon sculpted stonework ovin corss * Abbeys may have been ransacked and lcosed by danes bt reestablished by edgar in great numbers and estat, new foundations inc ramsey and chatteris

Question 44

viking invasion textual

Answer 44

 W included violence, stories of balsham raisers tossed children in the air to be caught on spears  Anglo saxon chronicles- ‘afterwoods took possession of east anglia where they plundered and burned three months

Question 45

how has magterial culture rewritten narratives based off written sources

Answer 45

intro syria palestine0 arab conuqetss abbasid sammarsa iraq more vikinsg above

Question 46

arab conquest- texttual narrative

Answer 46

Byzantine chroniclers, notably Theophanes the Confessor, depict the Arab conquests as events marked by widespread destruction and the abrupt collapse of Christian civilization. These accounts emphasize themes of plunder and religious upheaval, including the conversion of churches into mosques.

Question 47

arab conquest arch continuiyty

Answer 47

- Negev Desert, Avdat, reveal that many churches remained operational well into the 8th century, sustained Christian presence -. Continued patterns in Christian burials and local pottery production further suggest that daily life and cultural practices persisted nassana papyri

Question 48

nessana papyri

Answer 48

collection of Greek-language administrative and legal documents from approximately 600–700 CE demonstrates that existing tax systems and administrative practices continued under early Muslim rule. The involvement of Greek-Christian scribes points to a period of pragmatic coexistence and gradual transition rather than abrupt disruption.

Question 49

sammara and abbasid ideology - textual narrative

Answer 49

Early Islamic historiography and some Western texts have portrayed the Abbasid dynasty as austere and iconoclastic, emphasizing a tribal and simplistic societal structure.

Question 50

material counter evidence sammara

Answer 50

palatial arch urbsn planning

Question 51

palatial arch of abbasid

Answer 51

city of Samarra, serving as the Abbasid capital from 836 to 892 CE, showcases extensive palace complexes, bureaucratic quarters, and recreational facilities like polo fields. The use of intricate stucco reliefs, mosaics, and marble inscriptions reflects a sophisticated courtly culture with significant artistic patronage

Question 52

urban planing abbasid

Answer 52

organized spatial layout of Samarra, designed to accommodate the caliph’s court, military, and administrative functions, indicates a highly centralized state apparatus. This challenges notions of a rudimentary or purely tribal governance structure.

Question 53

lombard italy textual narrative

Answer 53

Historical accounts, such as those by Paul the Deacon, often depict the Lombards as primarily warlike and dismissive of Roman traditions, leading to assumptions of fiscal and administrative collapse following their invasions.

Question 54

material counter evidence lomabrds

Answer 54

early imitative ocinage regional mining and admin \transition to distinct lombard types

Question 55

early imitative ocinage

Answer 55

(late 6th–7th century) * Types: Tremisses (small gold coins) imitating late Roman/Byzantine solidi. * Iconography: Retains Roman imperial motifs—crosses, busts in Roman military dress, inscriptions in poor Latin.

Question 56

tremisses interpetation

Answer 56

Suggests intentional appropriation of Roman legitimacy and continuity of late antique monetary conventions.

Question 57

example imitayve coinage

Answer 57

Lombard tremissis minted in Lucca (7th c.) bearing the name of Emperor Justinian II—despite being issued by Lombards. o Shows the political cachet of Roman imperial identity even post-Empire. o Settled without iemprial authorization of roman lands o Reflects limited literacy but deliberate symbolic continuity.

Question 58

lombad miniting

Answer 58

* Main mints: Pavia (capital), Milan, Lucca, Rome. * Coins show regional variations but unified adherence to Roman weight standards (esp. the tremissis standard of ~1.3 g). * Evidence of continued metrological knowledge and tax collection, contradicting the idea of a decentralised tribal society.

Question 59

transtion from distcint lombard types

Answer 59

- byzantine roman ifnleunce distinct

Question 60

byzantie lomabrd

Answer 60

* Initially copied from coins of byzantine exarchate of ravenna o Dukes of Benevento issued golf coins in byzantine style  Frontal bust of duka , otehrsd archangel Michael weighs souls of departed onjudgement day  Lombards allegedly founded duch y of benvento but before in sphere of influnec ebyzantine

Question 61

roman lombard ocin

Answer 61

* 8thc Victoria, goddess of ictory, given up on roman half and third pieces o Instead archangel Michael depicted, city paton of pavia o Although othrside show sking aripert in roman fashion 700-712

Question 62

lomabrd own coinage

Answer 62

* By mid-7th century, coins begin to use Lombard royal names (e.g. King Cunincpert, r. 688–700) instead of imperial ones. * Distinct styles: Lombard rulers wearing local garb, inscriptions in increasingly garbled Latin or hybridised forms. * Suggests growing political confidence and ethnic identity, while maintaining monetary systems.p

Question 63

papyri evidence

Answer 63

 Added to the variety of admin lang  One of the earliest papyri recorindg arabic in an admin context- tax demand note dated to 643 o

Question 64

arch proves arab

Answer 64

 Limited arch evidence for the destruction or abrupt change in settlement patterns that would be assc with expanionsim in the 640s and 650s  Robinson- arabs most likely made deals which avoided large scale conflicts

Question 65

arab compromise

Answer 65

 635- Damascus arab armies negotiated with city s bishp to establish terms of surrender * Al- baladhuri the book fo the conquets of the rgeions- stated that ‘so long as they pay the poll tax’ nothing bad would happen to them and their ‘city wall shall not eb demolished’ * Text al-balashuri quaranic phraseology ‘in the name of god the compassionate and the merciful’- concessionary agreement indicative how islam pacified or modrate dhe arabs