Arab empire/invasion Flashcards
how sophisticated was the 7thc caliphate
- Moved from ‘the periphery of the civilised world’ to the ‘courts that ruled much of it’- stretched from Iberian peninsula to indus river within a century
- Sophistication is the antithesis to barbarism- mature thinking, developed admin and financial system to facilitate a growing empire, concern for image
o Was sophisticated as those ‘voices from the desert’ started to be ehard in the wider world
o Some may attempt to argue that here was minimal sophistication in 7thc caliphate, cont infighting- two fitnas
background caliphate
- After the death of Muhammad in 632 AD, caliphate govern arab peoples under islamic faith
o First abu bakr Rashidun caliph, rule dafte rbeung chosen by a ocunicil of senior clerics
o Umayad caliphate took over 661 - Muhammad was ideal, ‘seal of the prophets’ no more perfection of people sent from god
o Had set up a community in Yathrib, later called Madinah, to foster tthese beliefs whilst livng alongside fellow people of the book
plan how sophisticated wa sth e7thc caliphate
b and centralised state
governance
Arab empire
sophistication- b centralised state
mu’awiyah turning point
coinage
fiscal and admin system
mu’awiyah turning point
o Clive foss agrees- islamic gov highly organised and b under him
o Refuting barbaric accusations as signif reforms
- Jeremy johns – pessimistic
o Centralised admin and fiscal apparatus was absent
coinage material culture
o Coinage helping to demonstrate shifts in governance and centralisation
o From 670s onwards, greater organisation and ocnsistsnecy seen w coinage
Mu’awiyah
abd al malik
mu’awiyah coinage
o From 670s onwards, greater organisation and ocnsistsnecy seen w coinage
Mu’awiyah appear on coin as ‘commander of the belivers’
Awareness of power prop in everyday obects
Gov authority over minting
abd al malik coinage
690s
Fully abandoned ‘figural imagery and languages’ of pre islamic coinage
In order to adopyt distinctively islamic practice calligraphy
Two arab silevr coins- ‘in yhe name of god, Muhammad I sthe messenger of god’- demosnrtate shift towards imperial islamic identity
Reformed coinage replacing byxantine and Sasanian models with islamic dinars and dirhams
fiscal and admin sophistication
o Latter half of the 7thc
o
669- papyrus detailed a delivery of provisions for an arab postal station in Fayum limited evidence fro a visible and uniquely arab influence over their empire
Earlier minimal action- post arab conquest of egupt 642 ce
* ‘little ipact ‘ on Egyptian daily lives
* No mass confiscations of land, lower byzantine admin personnel remained in their posts and indigeouns elite retaind their estates- pragmatism, limit revolt
- taxation increase
record
taxation increase sophistication
- Syriac historical rad later 7yhtc- apocalyptic histories
- Egupt ‘unprecdeneted extension of tax liabilities to mobile peasants and monks’
o Shift in the gov of these proinces - Governor abd allah given responsibliy to establish a diwan in egpt where all of egypts taxes centrally regulated
- Complex tax system with kizya (poll tax non muslims) xaikat aims tax for mulsim
- Egypt under amr ibn al-as from 640 retained existing b to collect taxes, integrated local systems into the caliphate
record sophistication
- Diwan system under umar- central register of army and pensioners, tax admin
- Based in medinah then damascs under Umayyads
o Ummayyadsa dopedsasanian byzantine b structures
governance sophistication
challenged two fitnas
control maintained
internet influence - moque, arabic lang
tolerance
sophistication chlalnege dtow fitnas
o First- arminina chronicler described as ‘mutual conflict
Battle of the camel 656 and battle of siffin 657 demsonrtated framengtation between ali forces and those of his rivals inc Muawiya as court divided over legitimacy of alis sucession
Not always storng sopistaced state
control maintained sophistication
o Mu’amwiya framwork governors for diff areas- himself stationed in Damascus in overall charge
o Other governors placed in Egypt and west
o Comm w tribal leaders comm tribesmen- pseudo-feudal system
o Caliph umar 634-44- centralised control, appt govenors wulat monitored financial provinces
internat influence gov- sophistication
o Monumental inscription written in Greek, in Palestine- mu’awiyah commander of believers
Greek inscription suggests a willingness to be perceived as an international multicultural individ , making mark on ladn they had conquered
mosque sophistication
o Umayyad caliph al-walid- mosquw of Damascus
Intended to beuilt the muslims a mosque that should be unique and a wonder to the world- as stated to nephew caliph al-walid
Felt jealosu of the Syriac church es reonwed fo rtheri splendour, wnate dto create a site which would be equally memorable and impressive
spread arabuc bag sophistication
Added to the variety of admin lang
One of the earliest papyri recorindg arabic in an admin context- tax demand note dated to 643
Abd al-malik changing official lang of state registers from Greek to arabc 693
tolerance- sophistication
People of the book granted dhimmi status
* Protection of life and property in return for taxes jizya
* Allowed to keep churches communities own law courts
* Islam unifying religion under abd al-malik
-
Arab empire sophistication
driven by jihad
successful and strategic
arch evidence
military force
precedent set
Arab empire driven byjihad
Arab muslim fighters supported by a newfoundland community and religion, motivated by the promise o fgreater wealth and land
* Chauvinism could be seen barbaric- tribal conflict
* Following the sucessful battle fo Nijhawan against sassanian s 641 shah Yazdegerd was murdered in exile, suggesting an innate brutality to the muslim peoples
* Quick sucession fo conflicts from Syria 630, egupt 640s , med island scyprus Rhodes and crete 650s- insatiable appetite for conflict
Arab empire successful strategic
- Byzantines defeat Yarmouk 636
- Sassanian defeated qadisiyyah 636 nahayand 642
- Garrison towns( amsur)kufa, basra
o Preventing intermingling with locals, miantian tribal military cohesion
arch Arab empire
Limited arch evidence for the destruction or abrupt change in settlement patterns that would be assc with expanionsim in the 640s and 650s
Robinson- arabs most likely made deals which avoided large scale conflicts
635- Damascus arab armies negotiated with city s bishp to establish terms of surrender
*
Damascus negotiations
Al- baladhuri the book fo the conquets of the rgeions- stated that ‘so long as they pay the poll tax’ nothing bad would happen to them and their ‘city wall shall not eb demolished’
* Text al-balashuri quaranic phraseology ‘in the name of god the compassionate and the merciful’- concessionary agreement indicative how islam pacified or modrate dhe arabs
military force sophistication
Abd al-malik military reforms carried out, adopting a professional soldiery of Syrians
* Shift from tribal-kinshp based model of recruitment and government of troops to a mercantilely one further demosnrtative of sophistication – undertsanidng separate civilisans and sodleris
* Effective- four year long campaign on byzantine frontier- parts of Armenia falling to islamic rule firt time
monetary rewards- sophistication
Monetary rewards for victory on battlefield
* Battle of al-qadissiyya 634 turning point nin the war against the Sasanians soldiers sho took part in the campaign received 2k dirhams, perhaps motivating them to victory
precedent set sophistication
Jews 637- when arab armies arrived at hebron jewish peple allowed them to conquer asking muslims ‘rgant us security so htat we would have a similar status among you
Feared wrath of christian- roman persecution
Shushtar conspiring w arabs to help them capture the city in return for a ‘third of the spoils’ arabs built up aliances collaborating atcially sophisticated way of thinking
what cause the collapse of the abbasid dynasty
control empire /internal politics
weaken courtly cohesively
Econ corruption antagonising population
abbasid dynasty collapse intro
o Abbasids were ‘islams greatest dynasty’
Not flexible, not adapt to changing political miltary and eocn landscape, hence power dwindled and dissipated
More gradual colalspe, power conceded and lost non arab groups- turks and ultimately mongols
Consequence of inability maintain central control over empire and military
Weaknening courtly cohesivity
Econ corruption antagonising population
o Could argue that collapse dynasty was in 946 with buyids, as caliphs were merely pupets, equally 1056 seljuk truks take over, abbasid claiphs remain fiureheads, real power lies with Seljuk sultans
abbasid background
o Ruling from 750-1258
Golden era 749-847 – grand architectural achievements, urbanisation in Baghdad and samara
Translation of knowledge and sicen form other civlisations into arabic and amassibg of huge financial wealth
o came to power after aggressively seizing control from the ummayads
Harness anger of mawali non arab muslims to revolt against Umayyad
abbasid dynasty control empire
o Abbasids had built their dynaty on sand there were no foundations to stand on
Their authority and legit disintegrated and crumbled ats the tides of political ambition washed in
- assanition political rivals
civil wars
- dismantle ing of empire
control empire- assignation politcal rivals
Ali al-rids (hier to caliphate) mysteriously dying when visiting her fathers tomb after eating some grapes
* Blame on ma’mun likely concerned of ali al rida growing popularity esp amongst shias
* Exposing deepening sectarian tensions and conflicts ithin the regime what
Eroded dynasty legit
control empire- civil wars abbasid
Musta’in 865 ‘entirely beholden’ to the turks ‘fro his elevation to the threone’ and urle
* Controversially appointed a Turkish vizier utamish only example of a Turkish vizier in history of caliphate- suggest growing inability within arab elite find competeant adminisrtatiros
* Relied upon trukish generals- bugha al-kabir key allies at points
o 865 ad Turkish general bak above led a military revolt against mustain showing willingness betsray former loyalties
o Actions culminated in musta’in forced abbdictaion and imprisonment, subsequent rise of al-mu’tazz
civil wars- dismantle empire a
Spain and most north Africa pull out of their ‘orbit’
Tunisia effectively independent during durng war of the brother s811-13 suggest lack of abbasid autrhoity
disenchantment regime
buyid
Egypt fatimids
mongols
abbasid disenchantment w regime
- Qarmitian revolt 10thc
o , demonstrate collapse of bbasid uathroity in Iraqi region of the emprie
o Radical shia group- revolt against sunni governance
o Kill thousands innocent pilgrims, nurn copies of qauran
o Sieze hold hosatg ka’ba several years
o Limited fight abck form abbasids
Apart from publicise anti-q prop claied sexually salacious heretics
buyid dynasty
– bolder
o Baghdad control 946
Symbolically showed authority over the dynasty, effectively reducing caliph mere figurehead
Building boom in Baghdad restoring baduirya dam on rufaul river- pseudo-caliphs wiling to make improvements on land conwuered- maybe win support
Invasion humiliating- undernine sunni superiority and right to rule
egypt Fatimids
o Rise in 10thc – took adv abbasid weaning central control and established own caliphate
o Direct tyhreat. To authority of abbasi clearly challenged legit, contribute colaspe as alternative sources of leadership and power contestingthem
mongols
1258
o After devasting western Persia, marched into Baghdad under leadership of hulagu allied by the shias who sought to ‘prove their abhorrence of the suni camp’
o On reaching Baghdad mongols sacked the city for 40 days ‘butchering’ a large proportion of the inhabitatnts =’in cold blood
o Destroy toms of caliphas at rusafah and shrine of musa al-kazim
o During raid, mongols also murdered caliph mutasim and his osns- end of abbasid and elimination any potential sucessors
courtly cohesively
gender norms subvert yet respected
gender norms abbasid
o Across western eupre and middle east, masculine triats dominance assertiveness and courage expected of rulers
o Women- political pawns through tactical marriages or objects of pleasure within harem
No influence in politics
Caliph al-mansur advice to son al-mahdi ‘never involve your owmen in polutcal affairs
abbasid subversion gender norms
Khayzuran- concubine of prince al-mahdi
* Ambitious
* Endeavoured to weave a power base for herfel at court- sister al-mahdi borther concubine
* After al-madhi became caliph, k emancipated and married him, making two sons hiers to the throne
* Social mobility gave her power
how khazyuran exercised power
riot
o Rashid entered Baghdad with troops dmeandin higher pay, priosners set free and the cictywas sabotaged
o K called for political consultation, summoning al-rabi’b and yahya the baramkid to decde how to resolve the criss
o Ifrts time abbasif women directly intervened ‘in state affairs on that level ‘
khayzuran respected
o Own paace
o 260k dianars annually
o Received requests and petitions as she met w state officials and comadners
o Undermined caliphate, as presents actual caliph son unableto do job
o Abbasid dynasty collase orcess fo lt decline of misplaced trust and undermined image
economic pressures - abbasid collapse
external- ecological
internal choices- mu’tadid, al-mahdi, al-rashid, courtiers
economic ecological abased collapse
- Flooding following harsh winters 9thc onwars, making agri stability in tigris-euphrates region more challenging
- Civil wars an conlicts only limited agir otput further a sland damaged and destoreyd
economic- abbasid - mu’tadid
- Priorisitese himself and ocurt over people
- Reduced ratonns of bread to civilians by one ounce- to distibuet to members of his household
- Requested that his treasurer set aside all the best cloth made so he could have for personal usee
economic al-mahdi- abbasid
- Comimsoned a palce for his leasire hours oustdie naghdad cost 10 millian dinnars
o A lot0 a family of four live on 4 dinars per month
o For a building not even aid ability to govern
al-rashid abbasid Econ
- Financially irresponsible, spent lavishly on personal indulgences
- Acquire hundreds of concubines, one costing as much as 100k dinars
courtier abbasid eon
- Al-mustai’in – utamish vizier,
o Giving him and shahak al-khadim contrl over treasury with licen to do as pleased
o Extract money for themslevss, deverease stat espenidng
o Sodliers salaries fell into arrears due to lack of military funding
o Ultimately led to civil war inc turks-
Low or unpaid wages indicates lack of respect for soldiers no longer wish serve for caliph - Harun al-rashid caliphate- barmakid vizier
o Poor decision, vizier seized caliph revenue, making it challenging to rule s al-rashid ‘could not extract fron tehm gthe sums..which he needed
what caused the collapse of the ummayad dynasty intro
- Founded by Muʿāwiyah I after the First Fitna (661 CE), the Umayyad Caliphate established the first hereditary dynasty in Islam.
- Governed from Damascus, they expanded across North Africa, Spain, and into Central Asia.
- Fell to the Abbasid revolution in 750 CE, culminating in the Battle of the Zab.
- This essay will explore the political, religious, ethnic, and military causes of their fall, arguing that the dynasty lost legitimacy in the eyes of key constituencies.
ummayad collapse- plan
political and admin weakness
religion
ethnic social tensions
military defeats abbasid rev
ummyayad military defeats - collapse
external overreach- * Failed siege of Constantinople (717–718) by Sulaymān’s forces sapped resources.
* Defeats in France (Tours, 732) and India marked the limits of expansion.
abbasid uprising
abbasid uprising
- Abbasids built a coalition of mawālī, Shi’a, anti-Umayyad Arab tribes, and Persian Muslims.
- Abu Muslim al-Khurasani led the uprising in Khurasan, gaining mass support.
- Decisive victory at Battle of the Zab (750). Last caliph Marwan II killed.
hist um collapse
crone and hinds
Kennedy
sunni
shia
hit um collapse crone and hinds
religious discontent and filler elf islamic legitimacy
Kennedy hit um
focuses on Arab chauvinism and administrative inflexibility.
sunni hit um
- Traditional Sunni sources frame fall as divine punishment for moral corruption.
Shia collapse um
historiography presents Abbasids as just revenge for Karbala.
um collapse- political and admin weakness
hereditary rule
centralisation and autocracy
nepotism and corruption
hereditary rule- um
- Transition from elective to hereditary monarchy under Muʿāwiyah alienated traditionalists.
- Succession crises (e.g., Yazid I’s rule and Husayn’s martyrdom at Karbala in 680) undermined moral legitimacy.
centralisation and autocracy um
- Governors often ruled harshly and autonomously (e.g. al-Ḥajjāj ibn Yūsuf in Iraq).
- Peripheral resentment grew—especially in Khurasan and Iraq, where centralised control was both weak and oppressive.
nepotism and corruption um
- Power and wealth concentrated in the Syrian Arab elite, particularly the Quraysh and Umayyad clans.
- Perceived mismanagement and elite excess (e.g., Walid II’s extravagance) fueled public discontent.
religion- um
shia hostility
kharijite
perceived moral delicnes
shia histility um
- The Umayyads were deeply unpopular among Shi’a, who viewed them as usurpers.
- Legacy of Karbala (680) and persecution of the family of ʿAli created enduring bitterness.
- Revolts: Zayd ibn ʿAli’s uprising (740), and later alid support for Abbasids.
kharijite rebellions- um
- Opposed both Umayyads and Shiʿa; saw all rulers who sinned as illegitimate.
- Frequent insurrections in Iraq, Arabia, and Iran (e.g. Najd revolt, 8th century).
perceived moral decline um
- Some caliphs seen as impious or worldly (e.g., Yazid II, Walid II).
- Abbasid propaganda portrayed Umayyads as un-Islamic monarchs and oppressors of the Prophet’s family.
ethnic and social tenson- um
Arab supremacism
regional power imablance
Berber revolts
Arab supremacism- um
- Umayyads privileged Arab Muslims; non-Arab converts (mawālī) faced discrimination in taxation and status.
- Mawālī resentment was especially strong in Khurasan, which became a hotbed of Abbasid support.
regional power imbalances um
- Dominance of Syrian Arab army bred resentment in Iraq, Khurasan, and North Africa.
- Failure to integrate conquered peoples as full citizens weakened unity of the empire.
berber revolts
(740s)
* In North Africa, harsh Umayyad taxation and racial bias led to Berber rebellion.
* Undermined western control, reducing tax revenues and military resources.
conc um collapse
Umayyads collapsed because they failed to adapt their imperial model to the plural, multi-ethnic, and religiously diverse reality of their empire.
* The Abbasids succeeded not just militarily, but ideologically—offering an image of a more inclusive, morally upright Islamic caliphate.
* Their fall highlights how legitimacy, not just power, is the foundation of Islamic rule.
is it right to speak of Arabs - into
- Term “Arabs” used in early Islamic sources, Greek and Persian accounts, and modern historiography.
- Often assumed to refer to the people who emerged from the Arabian Peninsula to conquer the Sasanian and Byzantine empires.
- This essay will argue that “Arabs” is a useful but imprecise term for this period—better understood as a constructed identity shaped by tribalism, religion, empire, and language
is it right to speak of Arabs plan
pre islami Arab identity fluid and tribal
early islamic period religion as identity catalyst
empire and construction of drabness
internal diversity among the Arabs
pre islamic Arab identity
no unified political entity
* Arabian Peninsula in 6th century CE = fragmented tribal society.
* Major tribal confederacies: Ghassanids (Byzantine clients) and Lakhmids (Sasanian clients).
* Frequent intertribal warfare; identity based on tribe (qabīla), not “Arabness”.
greek and roman perceptions
greek and roman perceptions of Arab
- Romans/Byzantines referred to the region as Arabia, and its inhabitants as “Saracens” or “Arabs” but with vague geographic connotations.
- Used “Arab” as a catch-all for desert peoples—more ethnographic than political.
early islamic period- Arab identity
m and quarantine
tribal continuity in islamic armies
Arab v mawali
m and quarantine Arab identity
- Qur’an uses the term ‘al-‘Arab’ and ‘aʿrāb’ (often pejoratively: desert dwellers resistant to Islam).
- Islam initially superseded tribal identity, focusing on umma (community), but did not erase tribalism
tribal continuity in islamic armies
- Conquest armies were often tribally organised (e.g. in Kufa, Basra, and Fustat).
- Tensions between tribes (e.g., Qays vs Kalb) shaped politics and revolts (e.g., Battle of Marj Rahit, 684).
Arabs v mawali
- “Arab” began to mean Arabophone Muslim conquerors, often ethnically Arab.
- Mawālī (non-Arab Muslim converts) were second-class citizens under Umayyad rule.
- Shows Arabness increasingly tied to ethnicity and privilege, not religion alone
empire and construction of drabness
Umayyad period Arab imperial identity
exclusionary politics
ummayad period- empire construction
- Umayyads built an empire on Arab-Muslim military aristocracy.
- Arabic made official language of administration under ʿAbd al-Malik (r. 685–705).
- Coinage, architecture (e.g. Dome of the Rock), and statecraft used Arabic symbolism and identity.
- Emergence of proto-Arab nationalism? Historians debate this (Kennedy vs Crone).
exclsunary politics- drabness
- Arabness became an elite status marker, distinguishing rulers from ruled.
- Resentment among mawālī, Persians, Berbers, etc., laid foundation for Abbasid revolution.
- Arab identity = imperial elite, not ethnically or geographically inclusive.
internal diversity among Arabs
tribal divsiions
regional variation
integration non Arabs
tribal Arab divisons
- Persistent and violent conflicts between tribal factions: Qays vs Yamani, North vs South Arabs.
- Played out in Umayyad succession and provincial revolts (e.g., Ibn al-Ashʿath’s rebellion).
regional variation Arab
- Syrian Arabs (Umayyad heartland) differed from Hijazi Arabs, Iraqi garrisons, and North African settlers.
- Urban vs Bedouin lifestyles; varying cultural influences (e.g., Greco-Roman in Syria, Persian in Iraq).
integration with non Arabs
- Intermarriage, acculturation, and religious solidarity blurred lines between “Arab” and “non-Arab”.
- Over time, Arabic language and Islam, not ethnicity, became primary markers of identity.
hist debates Arab identity
hagarism thesis
hugh kennedy
modern implictaions
arabness- hagarism thesis
. Patricia Crone & Michael Cook: “Hagarism” thesis
* Early Muslims were not self-identified Arabs, but a confessional movement that constructed Arabness later.
* Controversial, but shows artificiality of identity categories.
hugh kennedy
Emphasises early Arab military aristocracy but cautions against ethnic essentialism.
modern implications arabness
- Arab identity became more fixed and cultural-linguistic later under Abbasids and beyond.
- Historians increasingly cautious about anachronistic ethnic labels.
why did people convert to islam - intro
- nitial conversions were tied to personal charisma, tribal loyalty, and religious conviction, while later waves were shaped by integration into the expanding Islamic empire, avoidance of discriminatory taxes, opportunities for bureaucratic service, and the growth of Arabic-Islamic culture.
- Within three centuries, it became dominant across the Middle East, North Africa, and parts of Central and South Asia.
- Conversion was neither uniform nor coerced, but varied by region, period, and social class.
why convert islam
during m lifetime
632-700 conquest admin and selective conversion
700-900- religious universalism
regional patterns and exceptions
convert islam m lifetime
religious conviction and charisma
tribal solidarity and political calculation
convert islam - m charism a
- Early converts drawn to Muhammad’s message of monotheism, justice, and community.
o Example: Abu Bakr, Umar, and ʿAli were among the earliest male converts. - Marginalised Meccans—slaves, women, and the poor—saw Islam as spiritually empowering.
o Example: Bilāl ibn Rabāḥ, a former slave.
tribal solidarity conversion
- After 622 Hijrah, conversions in Medina were often collective.
o Tribes converted for peace, unity, and alignment with Muhammad’s growing power.
o Battle of Hunayn (630) followed by mass conversion of Arab tribes. - ʿAmmār ibn Yāsir, Khazraj and Aws tribes in Medina as examples of early group conversion.
632–700: Conquest, Administration, and Selective Conversion
Arab muslim conquests
Arab supremacy and slow integration
urbanisation and trade
Arab muslim conquests- 632-700
- Conquest of Syria (636), Egypt (640–642), Persia (651) created a vast, multi-ethnic Islamic empire.
- Non-Muslims allowed to keep their faith (dhimmī status).
o Jizya (poll tax) applied to non-Muslims → economic incentive to convert.
Arab supremacy slow integration- conversion
- Conversion not always encouraged under the Umayyads—state relied on jizya revenue.
- Mawālī (non-Arab converts) faced discrimination: unequal legal status, limited access to power.
o Example: Persian converts in Khurasan often resented exclusion.
urbanisation conversion
- In cities like Kufa, Basra, Fustat, Islam spread via commercial networks and urban elites.
- Converts joined garrison towns, intermarried, and participated in state bureaucracy.
700–900: Acculturation, Empire, and Religious Universalism
abbasid rev and inclusivity
islamisation of social and institutions
Econ and social integraion
abbasid rev - conversion
- Abbasid rise (750) capitalised on discontent among mawālī, Shiʿa, and others.
- Abbasids portrayed Islam as universal, not ethnically Arab.
o Example: Abu Muslim al-Khurasani (leader of Khurasani Persians) helped launch revolution. - Non-Arabs entered elite service: Persian administrators, Turkish generals, and scholars.
islamisation of social 700post
- Arabic became the language of administration, religion, and culture.
o Example: Translation Movement in Baghdad (late 8th–9th c). - Conversion often occurred through:
o Education in madrasas
o Legal integration (sharīʿa courts)
o Sufi networks and local preaching (esp. in Central Asia)
Econ and social integration conversion 700-900
- Muslims exempt from jizya → economic incentive remained.
- Converts could advance in state bureaucracy, military, or scholarly life.
o Example: Barmakid family (originally Buddhist caretakers of a monastery in Balkh) became leading Abbasid viziers.
regional patterns and exceptions conversion
- Iran:
- Egypt and Syria:
- North Africa:
- Al-Andalus:
iran
Gradual Islamisation; Zoroastrians remained into 9th century. Major shift under Abbasids.
Egypt and syria
Urban elite converted earlier; Coptic Christians remained significant minority.
North Africa
Berbers initially resisted, later converted en masse—some revolted (e.g., Kharijite Berber Revolt, 740s).
al-andalus
Slow conversion of Visigothic Christians; by 900, large muwallad population.
were the Arab conquests barbarian invasions - intro
- Nothing like barbarian invasions 300y before
- Origins, expansion and post expansion amdin, vasly diff in structure principle and process
- Arabs were unified roup unlike egrmanic barbarians
- Admin- barbarians established warlord cliques and then kingdoms within romes emprie
o Caliphate empire in own right - Conquered 632-750 iberian peninsula to indus valley
- Roman byxantine osurces often portrayed as savage and destructive
- Etomology
etymology of barbarian
non Greek/latin speaking outsider e within the empire
o Assc- destruction of centrliaed ruel, weaktribal political structures cuturl infeiroirty
o Could be considerd- rapid military extension, disruption of roman and Sasanian territories
o Viewed as desert nomads by Greco-roman writers
were the Arab conquests barbarian invasions plan
origins of islamicae conquerers
expansionism/invasions- similarities, diff
contemporary perceptions and the roman view
origins of islamicate conquers - diff
o Identity
Defined region – arab peninsula
Defined lang- araic
Common ethnicity arab
630s shared religion islam
Not completely monocultural- tribal ealleiagnces dialect, islam new
* But 730- unified single state, if only unified in name not survived first fitna
Invaders never established common idenity noneed to
* Thus imvasios met needs of smaller groups
origins islamicate conquerers similarities
o Both lived beyond the border regions known to roman empire,
o history limited conact largely through trade
expansionism/invasons similarities Arab and barbarian
military shock and speed
relocation of peoples
military shock and speed- Arab barbarian
battle of Yarmouk 636 collapse byzantine control Syria
qadissiyyah and. Nahavand – Sasanian empire broken 636 and 642
comparable to Adrianople 378 sack of rome 410
relocation of peoples- Arab and barbarian
tribal to new regions- garrison cities kufa, rasra, fustat
visigothic stetlemnt in quitaine, vandals n Africa
steppe fleeing huns
diff expansionism - Arab and barbarian
centralised ideology and authority
religious motivation and integration
institutions maintained
longevity
centralised ideology and authority- a b diff
arab conquests led by caliphate not fragmented tribal leaders
* abu bakr, umar, utham n direted cmapiagns medinah
religious motivation and integration - diff ab
isalm provided ideological unity and justicication
jihad divinely sanctioned expansion
integration of conquered peoples as dhimmi protected non muslism
barbarisn often convert after conquest frnaks and visigoths, mulims spread a dohesive religious poliicalsyet immediately
institutions maintained diff ab
arabs b, Egypt Coptic adminitsrators retained
iran sassanian tax system adoptd uner aliphal governance
longevity diff ab
ummayads 661-750 ruled from Damascus
infrastrucuure projects, coiage reform arabic b dome of the rock 691
gothsc and vandal states often short lied or unstabe eg vandals conquered by justiain 534
contemporary perceptions and the roman view Arabs barbariss- roman Byzantine view
- Writers like Theophanes or Sophronius saw Arabs as divine punishment for Christian sin—thus depicted them as savage, Godless.
- Framed as a new ‘barbarian’ threat akin to earlier invasions.
islamic self image barbarians?
- Early Islamic sources stress:
- Divine mission, order, and justice.
- Caliphs as heirs of universal imperial governance (Abd al-Malik’s inscriptions).
- Arabs saw themselves not as destroyers, but successors to empire.
historians suggest that Arabs not barbarian
- Hugh Kennedy stresses state-building and ideological cohesion in contrast to fragmented Germanic conquests.
- Patricia Crone noted the fiscal and military discipline of early Islam as remarkably sophisticated.
