rome Flashcards
decline and fall western roman empire causes- essay
- lt sturctural- Econ decline, political instability, military decline
- barbarian invasions- gothic, formation barbarian kingdoms, failure of integration
- east v west- strange eastern infratsurtcure, weaker western capacity
- symbolism and reality of 476 and continuities
cause fall Rome empire
better understood not as a cataclysmic event but as a slow transformation into a post-imperial world—though with real consequences for material life, order, and unity.
lt structural weakness fall- Econ decline
- De-urbanisation: Western cities shrank; trade networks diminished.
o E.g. Trier and Arles declined sharply in size in the 5th century. - Tax base erosion: Increasing tax burden on fewer people; aristocratic tax evasion- esp as territories lost .
- Currency crisis: Coinage debasement (esp. under Gallienus and later emperors) led to inflation.
- Dependency on slave labour weakened agricultural innovation
Econ decline fall- hist
Chris Wickham
Bryan ward-perkisn
Chris Wickham - Econ decline fall
: breakdown of a monetised economy → rise of localised economies and dependency networks.
ward Perkins decline Econ
fall in living standards; collapse of production (e.g. pottery) indicates real decline.
lt- political instability fall
- Frequent coups, assassinations, and puppet emperors.
o E.g. between 395 and 455 CE, the West had over 10 emperors, most of whom were either deposed or murdered. - Over-reliance on powerful generals (e.g. Stilicho, Aetius, Ricimer) created parallel power structures.
- Inability to assert authority over provinces:
o E.g. Africa lost to Vandals in 439 CE → huge financial loss for Rome, which depended on African grain revenues.
lt political - hist fall
ahm jones
Fergus millar
jones- political fall
bureaucratic overload + expensive central state
millar- political fall
fragile nature of Roman imperial authority outside the court
military decline and barbarisation- fall
- Increasing reliance on foederati (barbarian troops under their own leaders):
o E.g. Visigoths settled in Aquitaine (418); Vandals in North Africa (439). - Weak frontier control:
o E.g. Rhine frozen in 406 CE → mass crossing of Vandals, Alans, and Sueves. - Recruitment shortages → military became professional and non-Roman
hist - military decline and barbarisation- fall
Peter heather
guys halsall
heather- military decline fall
barbarian invasions decisive; overstretched military couldn’t cope
halsall- military decline - fall
: internal decay mattered more than military defeat
barbarian invasions and failed integration- fall
- gothic crisis
formation barbarian kingdoms
failure of integration
barbarian invasions- fall- gothic crisis
- Battle of Adrianople (378 CE): Gothic cavalry destroyed a Roman army and killed Emperor Valens.
- Sign of imperial inability to control or assimilate refugees.
- Visigoths eventually sack Rome in 410 under Alaric – symbolic blow to Roman supremacy.
formation barbarian kingdoms fall
- Visigothic Kingdom in Gaul and Spain (418 onwards)
- Vandal Kingdom in North Africa (conquered Carthage in 439)
- Burgundians in eastern Gaul; Franks under Clovis (late 5th century)
Rome did not expel them—it granted them land and legal status, hoping to manage them
failure of integrtaion- fall
- Foederati increasingly acted autonomously:
o Ricimer, a barbarian general, became the kingmaker of Western emperors (mid-5th century). - Odoacer was also a Roman officer but ruled Italy independently after 476.
- Roman state never developed coherent policy for integration or federalisation
hist- barbarisation of Rome- fall
goffart
ward Perkins
goffart- barbarisation of Rome
empire deliberately devolved military responsibility → no collapse, but outsourcing
ward Perkins barbarisation
wasn’t peaceful integration—it was loss of control and material decline
eastern v w divergence- flal- stronger eastern infrastructure
- Wealthier provinces (Egypt, Anatolia, Syria) remained intact.
- More successful emperors (e.g. Theodosius II, Marcian) maintained stability.
- Better administration, tax collection, and military organisation.
- E.g. Eastern Empire repelled Attila the Hun and paid off potential invaders more successfully.
weaker western capacity- fall
- Loss of rich provinces:
o Africa to Vandals (439) = loss of key revenue and food supply - Rome became marginal—imperial court moved to Ravenna (402).
- Provincial elites stopped investing in imperial institutions—opted for localised power or collaboration with barbarians.hist
hist- ew divergences- fall
heather
Wickham
heather- ew divergences
east had the money nd good fortune to suvrive
Wickham ew divergence fall
East adapted socially and economically; West fragmented
symbolism and reality of 476
- Romulus Augustulus deposed by Odoacer, who claimed to rule in the name of Eastern Emperor.
- No dramatic break for most people—Roman law and customs persisted.
- Transformation thesis: Western Empire morphed into post-Roman kingdoms, not all at once, not everywhere.
476 continuities
- Latin language, Roman law (e.g. Visigothic Lex Romana), Christianity continued.
- Many barbarian kings adopted Roman titles and administration
hist- 476
pirenne
brown an dcameron
pirenne- hist
real break came with islamic conquests not barbarian ones brown an
brown and Cameron 476
: transformation of the Roman world rather than its fall
at what point did the decline of western Roman Empire become termanial
hist- external v internal
378, 382
405-10 invasions
435-9 siege of africa
440s-50s salvageable?
468 battle of bon
476
terminal decline rome- good quotes
- Omce gaul was sieged by barbarians paulinnus of pella looked to god
o Test of spiritual and military power – failed
o Paulinus emblematic of landowning elite, lots everything- rve land and livehood- seen across western roman emprie
Barbaric invasion loss of life losss of tax rev and subsequent loss of militarys trength
external hist- decline Rome
- Polybius had suggested western roman emprie would decline from an extenrla threat
- Heather- ‘it was a fp crisis’ that caused this phenomenon – most compelling
o Without barbaric invaisons, cycle would not occur and so internal socioecon disintegration not be seen
Rome bulnerabilty exposed 378 attacks, cucle (triggered after 410 cont 429-39 attacks on Africa and carthage
internal hist - deline roman emprie
o Brown0 socioecon factors and pscyh developments in former or christianaity in altter
o gibbon- moral decline
decline 378- mentality
o Ammianus Marcellinus wrote in historical account res gestae
When eastern roman emperor valens heard of goths arrival of danube in 376 ‘affair caused more joy than fear’, ‘unexpectedly brought him so many young recuritss…he would ha vena invincible army’
Viewed as a strength rather than harbinger of collapse\problem
pessimistic 378
- Darkest disaster which ever fell upon the state- battle of adrionpole
- battle heard the ‘death knoll of the roman cause- marcellinus
cause 378
o Two years prior- gothic groups sought to seek asylum in roman empire driven by huns westward mobement creates. Insatbilitya dn isnecuirty
triggering the ‘migrationage
asylum grantedto the thervingi allow to choose to settle in thrace, whilst the greuthungi later crossed the danube to join them
o roman troops elsewhere further demonstrtaingw eakness and ill-attentiveness of roman military
driven by a lack of food- revolting and concflict ensued- poor roman humanitarian effort
o after closely observing the romans, the goths had gained strategic awarenss of the roman armies movements and weaknesses,s eeking to exploit them and gain land with the battle of adrionple 378
378
battle of adrionple
378 roman failure
o goths saw stunning victory- killed 2/3 roman army and kil emperor valens despiye roman army outnumberin the goths 7x
o although destruction of esstrn army estern army remained intact
o heather- traditional integrity of roman state breached
378 salvageable
o ward-perkins- if valens won decisive victory crushing enemy gothic problem may have been solved, setting a clear deterrent for future invaders
although not true- roman state rectifications- valens successor Theodosius successfully drove gogh back to thrac 382 ahcieve peace mean time
6 y later, more authoritative stance taken when another group fo goths attempet dto cross danube resulting ina. Massacre of those barbarians
382
settlement that follows d378 defeat
382 details
o Trad roman practice seprate barbarian groups into smaller ones and siperse them across multiple parts of the empire
o Goths however conc into provicnes of Scythia, Moesia and possibly Macedonia under their own authority in return for a military alliance- retain unity as people
o Allowed to have own internal laws and cultural trad rathe rthan having to assimilate in orman society
problem with 382
o Caused goths, later visgoths to be ablet o pose signif threat to rome as a seprate miliatr force within borders
Alaric king visigoths- repeatedly invaded Italy to extrac ttribuets and military links – eg three successive sieges fo rome 408-to 410
Although rome not capital of western empire, instead ravenna- actions weakned western empire
Romes firs sack in almost 800y- st Jerome wrote ‘if rome can perish what can be safe
406
o Mixed force of vandals alans and Suebi crossed rhine into gaul
o Likely pushed by huns
o Initiated a wave of destruction in gual and spain
408
Alaric and Visigoths invaded Italy
410
sack of Rome
causes of 405-10 invasion
o Highlighted weakness of the western roman emprie and military
o Priority given to eastern fornteir to protect eastern provinces- 20-25% total east and west roman troops usedon persina eastern fronotier, away from barbaric invaders
o Distanced troops perhaps emboldened barbarians to b emore ambitious and aggressive against the romans
o late roman agri boom, vast swathes of labour focused on doof production rather than for military
o professional roman army chronically proven to support usrupers- hunic leadr uldin proeviosu roman ally, switched sides invaded Moesia 408
betray romans and further threatening western roman stability
implications of invasion 405-10
paulinus of fella
collapse social hierarchy, fragility which relied hevsiluy on a. network of local landowners
paulinus of spall- 405-10
barbarian invasion of gaul brought about a profound upheaval of the established social and eocn order esp for landowning elite
‘foes burst into the vitals of the roman realm’
His family estate ‘given up to be pillaged’
destoeying his income, sourc and position within social hierarchy
implication 405-10 invasions- fragility social hierarchy
Elites backbone imperial stability suplyning tax rev and manpower in exchange for access to political careers and protection against external threats
Landowners- turned to barbarians to proect political econ standing due to lack of effective protection from roman state
Ward-perkins- key element in romes success or failure was the econ wellbeingof its taxpayers- delicne in trust and safety of roman landowners contributes to ultimate filaure
Could sugest fall of empire comuppenace of ‘fat cats’
Money needed thogh to support professional army, decline in rev meant decline in financial support for military- cycle
siege of Africa
435-9
siege of africa impact
- imperial accounts deteriorated
Gaiseric ambitious 439- carthage - Breadbasket of western roman emprie- provide food and vast tax rev- funding rome
- Loss of income from privinces Africa, equivalent to costd of nearly 40k infantry or orver 20k cavalry
429
vandals crossed from strait of gibralta into africa, rapidly conquering much of byzacena most o fnumidia parts of tripolintai etc
Endeavoured to conquer stat safe area during roan political crisis and power vaccum
Accorindg to procopious unlikely to be accurate, Africa 80k troops advanced
Sezed territory start hippo regius befor ebing allotted numidia and mauretania in agrememnt 435
442
desperation
rome made treaty with vandals granted them further territory as far west as cirta
Much fo north African atx rev lost outright, rome receive just ne 1/8th of pre 439 rev – due to devestation of. Tehse regions
Previous tax pribvilieges steadly revoked make up ofr losses
* All existing grants of tax exemption or reduction rescinded
* March 441 all land now to be assessed at the normal taxation rate,I nc church land
* Emperor Valentinian iii need to justify these polocies explicitly showing tehir unprecdenented nature and dire econ state of empire
o ;gowever in the diff of the present time this practice is obv not only inequitable but also.,,impossible
Extreme measures only support st- as shown with attempts for reonquest mof Majorian in 460 and 468 w eastern and roman empires
salvageable 40s
ward Perkins
o Pointing to attempted expeditions across vandals in 441 and 468 he believed if sucessful could have recovered African reouscres and reasserted the western empries imperial prestige
o Majorian 457-61 western empire still ale to make viable attempst at recovery
Majorian defeated a vandal attac on Italy in 457, ten won battle of arelate against visigoths in 458 securing lands of septimania
Goths reduced to federate status and Hispania rteurne dto emprie
Not actions taken by empire on verge of collapse
o Barbarians and romans could work together
barbarians and romans work together?- 440=70?
Coalition inc western romans visigoths franks Burgundians alans and even saxones together dfeated a hunnic invasion of gaul
Provided rome could maintain the military superiority shown durinh majorian reign, various barbarian peoples of gal would remain nominal subjects or allies of rome
Further losses of territory could be prevenyed, western rome inablility to maintain this martial supremacy due to econ collapse caused downfall
reputation lost 405s
- Although could argue lost all credibility fo being strong, eocn stable and cohesive following 405-10 invaisons and subsequent vandal intervention in Africa
o Shrnk, too many groups contesting overdwindling financial base- heather
o Burgundians and visigothians both seeking win influence over remaiing territory
o Burgundians belgica 439, visigothians besieged Narbonne at same time- trigger romans use huns for assistance
468
o Battle of bon ba
Fleet raised eastern emperor leo and western empero rathemius of over 1100 ships – largest fleet appear med in late antiquity
Fleet defeated by vandals in battle of cape bon- 10 shps lost, 10k men killed dand expedition abandoned
battle of bon catastrophic why
cost of fleet
exhausted eastern empire treasury
defeat emboldened barbarians of gaul to expand
battle of bon- cost of fleet
- 10300 pounds gold, called in every source- general taxation exploitation imperial estates onfiscations
- Context hagia Sophia by Justinian in 530s cost around 15-20 k pounds of gold
battle of bon - exhausted eastern empire treasury
- Eastern no longer support
- Eastern emperor leo died jan 474 treausry alsmot compeletly empy
- Had been important historically – 410 4k mne sent east afte ralaaric took rome crucial in securing ravenna and ensuig Honorius did not flee
- 452 eastern troops sent to assist Aetius in dealing with eth hunnic invasion of Italy
defeat emboldened barbarians of gaul to expand- battle of bon
- Given western romes pericevd weakness du to their defeat
- King euric of vsiigoths- taking powr 465
o After defeat fleet in 469 launched series of campaigns againstbretos
o 476 captured roman gallic cpatal of arles - 470s frnaks taken control fo old roman province of belgica secunda and capital at Tournai
*
476
huns
army
huns- 476
Not to be trusted- betrwayed roma again
Attila ambitions 450s- huns lauched an attack over river danube towards roman Balkans 476- eastern threat
476 as roman augustulus last roman emperor of the west deposed by roman chiefden odacer
army 476-
Eroded not paid enough
Foederati of the army petitioned orestes as magister militum and patrician of the western empire for grants of lands in Italy, refused rebelled
Barbarian leade roadoacer then used armys support to force abdisctaion of last roman emeprr, rmoulus augustus in sptermber 476
what point then
battle of bon- no back up plan no other support
- Whiggish to assume the fall of western empire inevitable eiethr lsos of adrianople or settlement of 382
o Weakened byt not inevitable, could be reversed
romans empire relationship to barbarians - why some barbarians accomplish to romans intro
- Barbarians and germnaic tribes not fixed ethnic entities, ethnicity social construct
o Indivdi and groups able to rapidly change their allegiance between Germanic tribes - Strategic nec- Barbarian rulers eqauly had to appease own warriors by expanding land anad gaining wealth
o rpeserve niilitary religious and pliuticla power for themslevss to keep their tribes ahppy – so adopt or drop roman practices and territory depending on relative use
o Pragmatism and cyncisim rather than desire appease/work wih romans - Fall of western roman emprie 476 ce did not end roman soc, barbarian kings ruled over largely roman populations
- Accommodation definition- politices preserving roman instituions, legal rights cultural norms and inclusion roman elites
- Diff levels of accom stemmed from religion, political strategy romanisation of the region and ruler ideology
- Roman empire was aspirational- control exerted so widely, elite luxyry
- Competition between barbarians
Rome relationship barbarian plan
frank
goth
vandal
lombard
franks- relationship with Rome
highly accommodating- political decision to assmiliate and adopt, tactical and worked to maintain greater stability and expansion eg.
political integration
religious policy
flexibility
broader geopolitics
franks- political integration
o Clovis (r 481-511) preserved gallo-roman admin, used roman bishops and elites (avitus of vienne)
o Retained roman tax and judicial systems
o Titles like consul and patirucs use dto proetc t roman legitimacy
religious policy - franks
o Clovis conversion ctaholicism 496 v Arianism aligned roman population majority
On the battlefield as ‘he had won a victory by claling on the name of chrits’ depste being a prior debout pagan
o Seen as defender of orthodoxy, gained church support
o Hilderic- stopped persecution nicene christians- toleration
frankish flexibility - romans
o Mixed marriage local autonomy for gallo roman aristocracy
o Carolingians later reveived roman littles, laws latin learing (Carolingin renaissance)
frank relationship rome- geopolitics
o Clovis king of franks successfully annihilated syagrius roman army resulting in syagrius fleeing to king alaric of toulous (king of the goths)
Romans clearly trusted some barbarisn
o Despite trust , alaric ‘afriad t incur the wrath of the frnkas; and thus surrendere dysagrius to clovis
- hierarchy of barbaric tirbes, with previous military success establishing this order
Tribal ranking- georgou of tour comment that ‘the goths are a timorous race’h
hist franks and romans
Ian wood
Walter goffart
wood- franks
franks were pragmatic and assimilative
goffart- franks
adapted rathe than destroyed roman system
vandals and rome
relatively unaccommodating – religious and warrior structure,c ultural diff too imbedded
- Religious division and intolerance
- elite exclusion and separation
initial pragmatism later oppression
roman principles
vandals and rome- religious
o Vandal rulers (Gaiseric r 428-77) arian chritsinas, roman majority were ctaholics
o Catholic clergy eprsected properly confiscated catholic bishops exiled eg bishop of carthage
vandals and rome elite
o Vandal elite formed a closed warrior aristocracy, roman elites marginalised
o Separate legal codes for romans and vandals
vandals toleration
o Gaiseric tolerated roman admin early on, sucessors huneric increased repressions
Post siege of carthage- treaty with emperor valnetinian
Treaty divided north Africa two distinct territories with vandals taking therich grian producing lands
Merills miles- ‘treatie sof this kind were commion in the wet – working with existing legal framework
vandals and romans heirarchhy
Roman African s’reduced to slavery’ forced to give up family heirlooms and belongings- carthage and vandal invasion north Africa
Geiseric ‘published a decree’ that everyone must ‘bring forward whatever gold, silve gems and items of costly clothing he had’ degrading and demoralising much of roman elite
Depersonalisation of romans
vandals and roman principles
egiseric and Hilderic looked up to roman system of governance
o Hasdig monarchs ‘drew upon roman ideologies’ seeking to create a cult of the leaders which revered those at the top
o Hilderic- highlighted roman imperial lineage
Reinventing the vandal royal family as a fusion of the hasdig and Theodosian fmailies
hist vandals and orme
merills and miles
goffart
merills and miles- vandals
religious division drove social and political distance
goffart- hist vandals
– vandals did not seek long term integration
lombards and romans
mixed approach
early disruption and instability
gradual romanisation and integrration
regional varaition
lombards early disruption and instablity
o Invaded Italy in 568 under alboin less romanised than other groups
o No centralised administration at first, local dukes ruled semi-indpeendnetly
o Arianism again created tension with catholic romanslo
lombards gradual romanisation
o Later rulers- liutprand 712-44 promotd catholicism and worked with papcy
o Edictum rothari 643 codifie Lombard laws but maintained roman legal distinctions
lombards regional variation
o Northern Italy eg pavia saw more accommodation and syncretism
o Southern duchies benevento- retaineddstornegr Lombard identity
hist lombards
Wickham
Geary
wickham lombards
lombards evolved from invaders to integrated rulers
Geary hist lombards
multiple roman denies persisted within Lombard Italy
goths and romans
roman legal system
roman practices
roman elite
goths- roman legal system
o Theodroic issue dbrevarium, compendium of roman law used to judge romans living under visigothic urle
o Accommodation roman subjets by ruling them thorgh a legal system hey are familiar with
o Taken fitrher- tehoderic iposed roman law upon gallic subjects in order to civilse them (Accorindg to a letter)
o Again hierarchy- describes own rule as ‘roman’ juztaose gallic ‘unregulated’ – connote roman ideals superior to barbarian
goths roman practices
o imperial wigeht system of ounces and pounds promote reliability prevents ‘frauds and purity ‘ from mingling – stated in letter
o arithmetic ‘sure reasonoing’ implemented ‘amost rliegious matetr
o legacy roman scientif discoveries and syems aee something even barbains impelemnt
o perhaps desire present themsleves more civilsied
goths roman elite
o Paulinus of pella, gallo roman landowner granted the important office of ‘count fo the private largesse’ irpmoving his position in society, suggesting how existing aristocrats are viewed positively by barbarians
o King Theodoric declaration to senate of rome
=
king Theodoric declaration to senate of rome
Rewarded Cassiodorus with ‘exalted rnak of patician’ as he ‘lived an example to all’
Cassiodorus therefore was the ideal, hew as ‘foem ancient sokc’ the romans, ‘ a race much praised’ ‘directed all things wigh jsutcie
Conotatiosn of romans justness legal supremacy
conc- barbarians and romans
- Depends upon religious alignment,p oliticla pragmatism and the ruelrs openness to roman trad
- Accommodation not a given- strategic and ideological choice shaped by local context
- Frnaks- nmost due to catholicism , active cooptation
- Vandals- alienated romans through religious repression and elite excusion
- Lombards initially disrupted but gradually integrated into roman Italy
who were the heirs of Rome
- In 476 CE, the Western Roman Empire traditionally ‘fell’ with the deposition of Romulus Augustulus by the Germanic general Odoacer.
- not the end of Roman influence.
o The Eastern Roman Empire (Byzantium) endured, and new powers—
o Frankish and Islamic—rose across former imperial territory. - Rome’s collapse resulted in fragmentation but also the transformation and reinterpretation of Romanitas.
no single hier diff levels
who were the heirs of rome- plan
- political and legal cont-
- cultural and religious inheritances-
- military and territorial legacy
political and legal cont- Rome tier
byzantine
frank
islamic
political- Rome heir- byzantine
- Direct institutional continuation of Rome after 395 CE (division of empire).
- Emperor Justinian I (r. 527–565): codified Roman law in the Corpus Juris Civilis (529–534).
- Maintained Roman senatorial titles, provincial administration, tax structures, and military organisation.
- Constantinople functioned as the new Rome: urban centre, imperial court, Senate.
- Byzantine emperors continued using the title Imperator Romanorum.
political Rome tier - hist
Cameron
kaldellis
Cameron- political Rome heir
Byzantines consciously cultivated Roman identity.
kaldells- rome heir
Byzantium should be called the “Roman Empire” into the Middle Ages.
franks- political and legal cont
- Charlemagne crowned Emperor of the Romans by Pope Leo III in 800 CE.
- Claimed Roman legacy through Christian kingship and papal authority.
- Carolingian legal reforms based on Roman and canon law; revival of literacy and governance.
hist franks political
nelson
Wickham
nelson- franks
: Carolingians as Christianised Romans.
franks- Wickham
legal revival selective and ideological rather than administrative.
islamic caliphates rome hier
- Umayyads (661–750) and Abbasids (750–1258) inherited Roman provincial systems in Syria, Egypt, North Africa.
- Bureaucracy adapted from Roman and Persian traditions (diwan, taxation, urban governance).
- Cities like Damascus and later Baghdad mirrored Roman cosmopolitan administration
hist- islamic heir
Whittow: Caliphates were functional heirs in the eastern Mediterranean.
cultural and religious inheritances Rome tier
christianity
islamic preservation
architecture urbanism symbolismi
christianity- cultural Rome heir
- Byzantines institutionalised Orthodox Christianity; continuation of Constantine’s Christian Rome.
- Franks adopted and spread Nicene Christianity; used Church structures to legitimise rule.
- Latin remained the liturgical language in the West.
hist- cultural religious inheritances
brown - Late Antiquity = cultural continuity and creative transformation.
islamic- cultural inehrtacne Rome heir
- Abbasid translation movement (House of Wisdom, 8th–9th c.): Greek and Roman texts in medicine, astronomy, philosophy preserved.
- Roman sciences like Galenic medicine, Ptolemaic astronomy adopted and expanded.
architecture urbanism symbolis Rome heir
- Byzantine Hagia Sophia (537 CE): synthesis of Roman dome technology and Christian symbolism.
- Carolingian Aachen chapel inspired by Roman and Byzantine models.
- Umayyad structures (e.g. Dome of the Rock, 691 CE) used Roman techniques (arches, domes, mosaics).
military territorial legacy byzantines
- Retained eastern provinces: Anatolia, Balkans, parts of Italy and North Africa.
- Justinian’s reconquests: North Africa (533), Italy (535–554), southern Spain.
- Maintained Roman military structure (themes, tagmata).
franks military Rome legacy
- Took control of former Roman Gaul; merged Roman civic elites with Germanic military power.
- Charles Martel (Battle of Tours, 732): protector of Latin Christendom.
- Carolingians saw themselves as guardians of Christian Rome.
C. Muslims
muslims military legacy Rome
- Conquered Syria, Egypt, North Africa (636–698), and later Spain (711).
- Maintained Roman road systems, cities (e.g. Alexandria, Damascus), and governance.
rome heir hist military
goffart
fowden
goffart- rome heir miliatr
Barbarian kings took over Roman systems rather than destroyed them.
fowden hist
Umayyad and Abbasid empires as Mediterranean successors.
summary rome heir
- No single polity inherited all of Rome.
- Byzantines preserved political and legal institutions.
- Franks revived Roman-Christian ideology under Latin rule.
- Muslims preserved and transformed Rome’s intellectual and administrative heritage.
- Rome’s collapse was not an end, but a transformation, with its legacy living on in multiple heirs across the post-Roman world.
twe was the decline of Rome. the consequence of the rise of Persia - into
- The fall of the Western Roman Empire in 476 CE was a long-term process, not a single event.
- The Sasanian Empire (224–651 CE), Rome’s eastern rival, was a powerful, centralised, ideologically driven state.
- Question: Did Persia cause Rome’s decline, or was it just one pressure among many?
- Argument: Persia significantly strained Rome’s military and resources, especially in the East, but the fall of the West had more to do with internal weaknesses and the rise of other barbarian groups. Persia shaped Rome’s imperial strategy but wasn’t the primary cause of its fall.
plan- Twe was the delineo of rome the consequence of the rise of Persia?
- rise of Persia and its challenge to rome
- persian pressure ad its consequences for Rome
- limitation Persia role
- lt decline of east
decline of Rome persia- rise of persia
sassainin dynasty imperial ambition
early military conflict
later conflicts and strategic drain
-
sassanian- falll of Rome
- Founded by Ardashir I in 224 CE, overthrew the Parthians.
- Asserted imperial ideology as “Kings of Kings” and heirs of Achaemenid glory.
- Claimed territory lost to Rome; committed to restoring Persian hegemony in Mesopotamia and beyond.
early military conflict- Persia and Rome
- Shapur I (r. 240–270) invaded Roman Syria and Anatolia, captured Emperor Valerian in 260.
- Repeated invasions into Roman provinces caused devastation and disruption.
later conflict- rise of Persia
- Khosrow I (r. 531–579): fought Justinian’s Rome in a series of exhausting wars.
- Khosrow II (r. 590–628) conquered major cities including Jerusalem (614) and Alexandria.
- Heraclius’ counterattacks (622–628) were costly but successful; left Byzantium exhausted before the Islamic conquests.
Persia and rome delcine hist
Howard-Johnston: Persia was Rome’s true peer and significantly shaped Eastern Roman decline.
persian pressure consequence Rome
- military resource drain
shift in strategic focus
psychological and ideological impact
military resource drain- persian pressure
- Huge number of legions permanently stationed in the East.
- Limited capacity to defend the West from Germanic invasions (e.g. Alaric’s sack of Rome in 410).
- Wars in the East meant fewer mobile armies and reduced imperial flexibility.
shift in strategic focus- persian pressure
- Emperors like Diocletian, Constantine, and Julian focused on stabilising the East.
- Western provinces became relatively neglected, opening the door for barbarian incursions
psychological and ideological impact- persian pressure
- Losses to Persia (e.g. Valerian’s humiliation) undermined Roman imperial prestige.
- Prompted internal reforms (e.g. Diocletian’s Tetrarchy) to manage multiple fronts.
limitation of Persia roel in Rome decline
western Roman Empire declined first
internal political instability
economic and social breakdown
germanic pressure in the west
western Roman Empire declined first- limitaion
- Persia was a greater threat to the East, but the West fell in 476 CE.
- The Eastern Roman (Byzantine) Empire survived Persia and lasted until 1453.
internal political instability- limitation
- Crisis of the Third Century: 26 emperors in 50 years (235–284), many killed in civil war.
- Imperial overreach, succession crises, usurpations.
Econ and social breakdwon- persi
- Decline in trade, urban shrinkage, reliance on tax-in-kind.
- Depopulation, plagues (e.g. Antonine, Cyprian), devaluation of currency
germanic pressure- limitation
- Visigoths, Vandals, Ostrogoths: settled within the empire, ultimately took over.
- 410 – Sack of Rome (Alaric); 455 – Sack by Vandals; 476 – Fall of Romulus Augustulus.
heather- barbarian invasions central to collapse
roel of Persia in lt decline of east
persian conflicts set stage Arab conquests
legacy eastern rivalry
persian conflict- lt
- After Heraclius defeated Khosrow II, both empires were exhausted.
- Weakened defences allowed rapid Islamic expansion (Damascus 634, Jerusalem 638, Egypt 642).
legacy lt
- Byzantine focus on defending against Persia caused long-term strategic imbalance.
- Cultural exchange, diplomatic rivalry, and mutual surveillance shaped imperial identities.
conc- Persia
- Persia was a major factor in Rome’s long-term strain, especially in the East, but it did not cause the fall of the West.
- Rome fell in the West due to internal decay, economic contraction, and barbarian invasions.
- However, the military and economic cost of wars with Persia weakened Rome’s overall resilience.
- Persia’s role should be seen as a contributory pressure, not the primary cause.
Justinian attempt legit regime- background
- Uncle jsutin I made hima. Co-rule in April 527 minting coins both images on
- Justinians aim make meproship his own
- L
how successful were jsutinains attempts to legit his regime
legalism, political religion- largely successful
legalism jsutinain quotes
o ‘clothed in the purple of justice; and ‘wreathed with the garland of temperance’- Agapetus
Bell – present jsutian ‘lawyers as the ‘priests; of this great imperila enetrprise
These legal reforms, part of a godly endeavour by jstuian to create a ‘moral universe’- legislated controlled and governed
legalism success structure
o Law and eperor fused- law animate0 the only legit source of justice
o Aim t opurify land- stated in imperial edict reofmred law emperor would stand ‘victorious’ over torublemakers, dirving ot their wickedness through the paths of the land
justinain well liked quotes
o Through the ‘power of his rank’ was ‘like god over all men’ – agepatus
o Possessor of divine usthority, supported by god in his endeavours to solidify his pwers and control
o Gifted with ‘heavnlly grace’
legalism justinian
success- quotes , b, avoid corruption , structure
provincial control Justinian tax
sucess- Removed bishops from this-
Distanced from the ‘moral containation’ of such activity
Unpopular so enabled jsutinian better utlsie bishops who had influence over the ‘constituency of yhe poor
legalism- avoid corruption
Landowners erecting signs claining prorotary rights over the lands of others, ban this practice threatening to siex landonwers own property as punishment
Subvert aristocratic court relationship
legalism justinain- b
Pubishable for tax collectors to not record payments recived and details landholding individ – amputated hand
* Violent threat- signif record keeping and ability keep accountable
* Historic aristocratic members and landholders evading tax, put greater financial pressure pon the state
political Justinian
tax collection
poorly informed/cohesion
political Justinian
provincial control
christian spirit
authoritative rule too
provincial jsutinain- lack cohesion
Egypt threaten cohesion of state as admin foundations had brken down
* Tax rev in Egypt supposedly being collected yet were not makinngtheir way to imperial capital, disintegration wihin empire
* Propcoiius- ‘thoght hey claimed to be delieving this money to the emperor’ they ‘found no diff in appropriating imperial wealth to themslevs’ – arrogance of admin b
o Yet p notoriously pessimistic justinain regime
Christian spirit Justinian
o subverted the authority of the imperium and the sacerdotium, as he regulated both the spiritual and civil life of his peoples
o Justinian followed Agepetus’ advice and took ‘pity on those in need’- aid
Laodicea who were affected by earthquakes, who did not have to pay taxes for three years as they recovered from the destruction to their homes.
This generosity was further seen in Antioch where Justinian gave an annual income of 4000 Solidus’ to support its hospice, presenting him as an individual who wished to help his subjects,
Justinian authoritative rule
o Most signif uprising – nika riots 532
o fulfilled On Political Science’s statement that the government could not operate without active aristocratic support,
as Justinian’s legal reforms, explored earlier in this essay, upset many of the aristocrats who had enjoyed the privileges of being unchallenged when avoiding tax or seizing others land.
o Procopious cynically takes this further through arguing that Justinian and Theodora had confiscated ‘the estates of practically all the members of the Senate’, which was an exaggeration
o whilst attempting to overthrow Justinian, ultimately ended in a massacre of some 25-30,000 people
jutsinain
sucess- unite, purify,apocalptic, pasion project
failure- unite chritsianity
christianity - Justinian unite sucess
corrupted heretics, homosexuals and pagans distracted empire pure fith heretics and pagans- churches removed- remove ability to worship therefore
anti pagan
* 542 plague following – perhaps god divine punishment inpure regie
* Justinian tasked John of Ephesus with converting pagans in Anatolia, whilst Pagan book burnings were also seen across the empire
Apocalyptic fear
* Malalas’ account of the Laodicea earthquake, in which God spared the city’s churches while claiming the lives of many pagans and only a few Christia
* Warnings
chrtsianity passion project
537 build, 558 restoration hagia sphia
Presents constantinple as the ‘spiritual heart of the church and the empire’ emboldening jsutinian as the empror who built this magnificent building
Paul the suelntry – hagia Sophia bring together broader chirtsina commniuty to witness and pray in ‘divinely inspired’ hurch’
perhaps creating gratitude and respect for justinain who had gifted the empire with the ‘most beautiful temple of all’
jsutianin homosexuals
- Justinian’s may have sought to exert control over the episcopacy, through his persecution of homosexuals, as Malalas details the only named persons punished for homosexual acts were bishops, such as the bishop of Rhodes and of Diospolis
- culture of fear, with a fear of others- homosexuals, pagans and Hellenes, clearly being fostered
Justinian political christen
Hellenes- no lonegr allowed to hold state offie, intimidate and control members of senatorial elite and aristocracy as Justinian doing trohugh legal reforms
Justinian chirtsinity sucess perception
Governance conducted with a ‘heart which rejoiced in chirst’
Paul silentry – indivdi promote pur chritsian cause hoping to utilise gods ocntenace to do so
One of the ‘greatest giftd wchih god in his heavenly grace has bestowed on mankind\
less successful Justinian chritsinaity
o . Eastern Christianity had become divided over the nature of Christ: could he be both divine and human?
o Council fo chalcedon 451
three chapters
never reocnicled- miaphysite church sin syria and Egypt disntegrtaion
less successful desire unite christendom- council of Chalcedon
451- affirmed the idea of Christ being ‘one person in two natures’, causing a schismatic effect between the Monophysites (who rejected the council’s decision) and the Dyophysites (who accepted the Chalcedonians
Hope unite- Theopaschite formula, stating that ‘God suffered in the flesh’
* Pope Hormisdas rejected this statement as ut was an addition to council fo chalcedon something could not accept
three chapters
o Cycle cont- 544-53 three chapters controversy
Justinain rejected writing fo nestorianisms- ibas of Edessa divergent to eastern chirtsian polemic
Pope vigilius reluctant support condemnation of three chaters
how did Easter empire survive 7thc
- Western Roman Empire ended in 476 CE (deposition of Romulus Augustulus by Odoacer).
- Eastern Empire survived through barbarian invasions, plague, and near-annihilation by Persia and the early Islamic Caliphate.
- The 7th century marks a key turning point: Heraclius (r. 610–641) defeats Persia but faces Arab-Muslim conquests.
- Thesis: Eastern Rome survived through a blend of favourable geography, competent leadership, economic resources, adaptive institutions, and religious legitimacy, contrasting with Western disintegration.
eastern Roman Empire- plan
geographic and strategic adv
admin and institutional continuity
eon strength and stability
military strength and flexibility
religious cohesion and imperial legitimacy
comparison w western empire collapse
eastern Roman Empire- geographic and strategic adv
- Constantinople location
relative distance germanic invaisons
control fo trade routes
relative distance egermanic invasions
- Barbarian pressures (Visigoths, Vandals, Ostrogoths) concentrated in the West.
- Eastern provinces spared major overland migrations.
admin and institutional continuity - longevity east
late roman reforms
b
urban gov
control trade routes- east
- Control over Black Sea, Aegean, Levantine coast, and inland caravan routes.
- Hub for silk, grain, spices, and luxury goods from East and Africa.
Constantinople location
- Founded by Constantine I in 330 CE on Byzantium’s site.
- Between the Bosporus, the Sea of Marmara, and the Golden Horn.
- Easily defensible: Theodosian Walls (built 413–447 under Theodosius II) withstood Huns (448), Avars & Persians (626).
hist grog
- Warren Treadgold: Geography enabled Constantinople to control key trade and communication lines that sustained the Empire.
urban gov- east
- Cities like Antioch, Alexandria, Ephesus, and Thessaloniki continued as regional capitals.
- Public works: aqueducts, forums, bathhouses maintained longer than in West.
late roman reforms east
- Diocletian (r. 284–305): reorganised empire into dioceses and prefectures, separating military and civil authority.
- Constantine (r. 306–337): established new capital; supported Christian infrastructure and maintained imperial administration.
functional b - east
- Strong fiscal apparatus with cadastral surveys, tax-in-kind systems, and annona distribution.
- Bureaucrats (curiales, comes sacrarum largitionum) remained in control through upheaval.
urban gov east
- Cities like Antioch, Alexandria, Ephesus, and Thessaloniki continued as regional capitals.
- Public works: aqueducts, forums, bathhouses maintained longer than in West.
Econ strength and stability - east longevity
monetary
grain
trade
monetary -e con= east
- The solidus, introduced by Constantine c. 310, remained stable until the 11th century.
- East retained gold supplies from Egypt and Africa; West relied more on depreciated silver and bronze
grain- Econ- east
- Egypt and the Nile Valley: still the breadbasket of the empire; annual grain shipments to Constantinople.
- Anatolia: high rural population, secure agricultural production.
trade econ- east
- Trade with India, China, Sassanid Persia, and Africa brought silk, ivory, spices, and slaves.
- Ports like Alexandria and Gaza were major centres of trans-Mediterranean trade.
hist east econ
Brown: Emphasises Eastern cities’ wealth and resilience compared to Western urban decay.
military strategy east
army structure deployment
effective leadership \diplomatic flexibility
army structure east
- Divided between limitanei (border troops) and comitatenses (mobile field armies).
- Strong military presence in eastern provinces; use of thematic troops evolved by late 7th century.
effective leadership east
- Generals like Belisarius and Narses under Justinian (r. 527–565) reconquered parts of Africa (533), Italy (535–554), and southern Spain.
- Flavius Zeno (r. 474–491): resisted internal revolts and the Isaurian challenge.
diplomatic flexibility - east
- Paid off Huns (Attila’s invasions stopped at Eastern frontier); used diplomacy with federate tribes.
- Ghassanids in Syria served as buffer state against Persian and Arab threats.
religious cohesion - east
emperor god rep
role of church
manage heresy
managing heresy east
- Monophysitism challenged Chalcedonian orthodoxy.
- Henotikon (482) under Zeno attempted compromise; Justinian’s religious campaigns promoted uniformity.
- Despite disputes, Eastern Church maintained institutional coherence.
plan justianin dissent
Nika riots
religious
elite resistance and court politics
comparison w west -why east survived
o Defensible geography and a secure capital.
o A resilient bureaucracy and stable revenue system.
o Flexible military and diplomatic strategies.
o Religious institutions that sustained legitimacy and unity.
* While the West succumbed to fragmentation and economic decline, the East evolved into a culturally distinct Byzantine state, preserving Roman identity while adapting to new challenges.
why so much dissent under jsutiain
- Justinian’s reign was a high point of Byzantine ambition: Corpus Juris Civilis (528–534), wars of reconquest, and monumental building projects like Hagia Sophia (completed 537).
- Yet his reign was also plagued by dissent:
o Popular revolts (e.g. Nika riots, 532)
o Religious schisms and provincial resistance
o Elite opposition to reform and taxation - Thesis: Dissent under Justinian was driven by the social, economic, and religious costs of his ambitious programme, which disrupted traditional balances of power.
causes Nike
Causes
* Perceived autocracy and detachment.
* Heavy taxation under John the Cappadocian.
* Discontent with corruption and harsh suppression of urban protests.
Nike riots- events
- Riots erupted after botched punishment of faction members and general discontent.
- Escalated into full-scale urban revolt: protesters demanded Justinian’s removal.
- Hagia Sophia and much of the city were burned.
- Justinian ordered massacre in Hippodrome—over 30,000 killed (Procopius, Wars 1.24).
Nike riots- Justinian - context
- Centered in Constantinople around the Hippodrome and sporting factions: Blues and Greens.
- Factions weren’t just about sport—linked to patronage networks, theological positions, and local grievances.
hist - nike
- J.B. Bury sees the Nika Riots as a symptom of Justinian’s poor relationship with the populace due to overcentralised rule and fiscal oppression.
religious dissent justiani
chalecdonian
repression heresy paganism
regional consequenes
chalceodnina- religious dissent
- Justinian was a devout Chalcedonian Christian (Council of Chalcedon, 451: Christ has two natures).
- Harsh treatment of Monophysites, especially in Egypt and Syria, alienated local Christians.
repression heresy - Justinian
- Shut down the Neoplatonic Academy in Athens (529).
- Enforced laws against Jews, Arians, and pagans (Codex 1.5: “On Pagans and Heretics”).
- Forced conversions, exiles, and closures of places of worship.
regional consequneces- justianin
- Monophysite bishops exiled; churches suppressed.
- Fuelled long-term regional separatism—particularly in Egypt (Coptic Church) and Syria.
elite resistance- jsutain
legal and b reform
role of Theodora
purges and power struggles
role of theodroa- elite- j
- Empress Theodora, a former actress, was highly influential—resented by elites.
- Backed Monophysites and managed factional alliances—caused court tension.
legal and b - elite dissent j
- Codification of Roman Law (Corpus Juris Civilis, 528–534): centralised legal authority under imperial control.
- Disempowered traditional senatorial aristocracy and regional elites who relied on legal ambiguity
purges and power stuggels- j elite
- John the Cappadocian, Justinian’s finance minister, feared for oppressive tax practices—later dismissed after plotting against Theodora.
- Frequent reshuffling of court officials bred insecurity and resentment.
fiscal burdens - j
taxation wars and building
tax reforms
provincial backlash
procopius
taxation wars and building s j
- Reconquest of Africa (533–534), Italy (535–554), and Spain (late 550s) drained treasury.
- Massive spending on buildings (e.g., Hagia Sophia) and fortifications.
tax reforms j
- Centralised taxation system under John the Cappadocian reduced local autonomy.
- Increased land taxes, compulsory services, and requisitions
provincial backlash j
- In North Africa, newly conquered territories rebelled (534–545) due to heavy taxation and garrisoning.
- In Italy, post-war administration alienated local Roman elites (e.g., Senatorial class in Rome diminished).
procopius j tax
Secret History: presents a hostile view of Justinian as greedy, deceitful, and anti-Roman—reflecting elite disillusionment.
dissent army
general discontent
underfunidng
general army discontent j
- Generals like Belisarius and Narses often undermined by court politics.
- Belisarius accused of corruption and dismissed; recalled for Persian war later (541–544).
underfunding j
- Repeated failure to pay or supply troops (especially during Gothic Wars).
- Caused low morale, desertion, and occasional mutinies.
conc- j
- Dissent under Justinian was widespread because:
o He centralised power and marginalised traditional elites.
o Enforced religious uniformity that alienated large segments of the population.
o Imposed crushing financial burdens on urban and rural populations alike. - Though he stabilised and glorified the empire in the short term, Justinian’s reign sowed long-term seeds of division, especially in the East.
- The dissent was not irrational—it was a reaction to a ruler whose ambitions came at high social, economic, and spiritual cost.
