High Yield Final Exam Deck Flashcards
***Steps to writing an outline
1) Narrow the Topic
2) write main points
3) Intro
4) Conclusion
5) Transitions
* **You do not need to apply the evidence
***What is plagiarism?
using another’s work, words, or deeds without adequate acknowledgment.
To use [another’s production] without crediting the source
To commit literary theft
To present as new and original an idea or product derived from an existing source
To steal and pass off [the ideas or words of another] as one’s own
***How do you use a verbal citation?
Citing sources accurately means putting in the work ahead of time to understand the source. Any time you offer facts, statistics, opinions, and ideas that you found in research, you should provide your audience with the source. In doing this, you enhance your own credibility. Your audience appreciates your depth of research on the topic, and you avoid accusations of plagiarism.Page 384
Accurate source representation comes from having a well-rounded understanding of the source. Critical thinking is necessary when assessing the source you intend to use. Among other information, it makes sense to check out who the author is or what the source is, what bias, if any, exists, what the intention of the author or source is, and what its intended use was.
5 criteria for evaluating web resources (list and apply)
1) AUTHORITY. relates to the concept of credibility. virtually anyone can become a web publisher.
A website that passes this first test contains information provided by an individual, group, or organization known to have expertise in the area.
2) ACCURACY. An accurate website is reliable and error-free. If the site was last updated two years ago and the site is discussing a bill before the legislature, then it is no longer accurate.
Millions of websites are also considered secondary sources, so the information has been interpreted by someone else. The information may be less accurate. Also, it is relatively easy to take information out of context when it is put online and can be removed at will.
3) OBJECTIVITY. The extent to which website material is presented without bias or distortion relates to objectivity.
What are the author’s credentials?
4) Coverage. the depth and breadth of the material. material may be too general or too specific. Determine if it meets your needs or if critical information is missing.
5) Currency. Currency refers to the timeliness of the material.
Some websites exist that have never been updated.
*** How do you conduct an interview?
CONTACT THE PERSON WELL IN ADVANCE. You may have to make several attempts to contact the person. Schedule a date and time to interview that leaves you with ample time to prepare your speech.
PREPARE QUESTIONS IN ADVANCE. An interview is a conversation between two or more people guided by a predetermined purpose. Know the purpose, and make sure you know what topics need to be covered and what information needs to be clarified.
DEVELOP QUESTIONS IN A LOGICAL ORDER. One question should lead naturally to another. Place the most important questions at the top to guarantee that they will be answered before your time is up.
STAY WITHIN THE AGREED TIME FRAME. If you promise the interview will take no longer than a half hour, keep your word, if at all possible. Build in a little time to ask questions based on the interviewee’s answers or for clarification.
5 goals for informative speaking
- Accurate
Informative speakers strive to present the truth. They understand the importance of careful research for verifying information they present. Facts must be correct and current. Research is crucial. Do not rely solely on your own opinion; find support from other sources.
Question the source of information. Is the source a nationally recognized magazine or reputable newspaper, or is it from someone’s post on a random blog? Source verification is important. Virtually anyone can post to the Internet. Check to see if your source has appropriate credentials, such as education, work experience, or verifiable personal experience. For example, how valid do you think information is from the Huffington Post?
Consider the timeliness of the information. Information becomes dated. If you want to inform the class about the heart transplant process, relying on sources more than a few years old would mislead your audience because science and technology change rapidly. Your instructor may require sources within a five- or 10-year span. If not, check the date your source was published (online or print), and determine whether it will be helpful or harmful to the overall effectiveness of your speech.
- Objective
Present information fairly and in an unbiased manner. Purposely leaving out critical information or “stacking the facts” to create a misleading picture violates the rule of objectivity. The following two strategies should help you maintain objectivity.
Take into account all perspectives. Combining perspectives creates a more complete picture. Avoiding other perspectives creates bias, and may turn an informative speech into a persuasive one. The chief negotiator for a union may have a completely different perspective than the administration’s Page 377chief negotiator on how current contract negotiations are proceeding. They may use the same facts and statistics, but interpret them differently. An impartial third party trying to determine how the process is progressing needs to speak with both sides and attempt to remove obvious bias.
Show trends. Trends put individual facts in perspective as they clarify ideas within a larger context. The whole—the connection among ideas—gives each detail greater meaning. If a speaker tries to explain how the stock market works, it makes sense to talk about the stock market in relation to what it was a year ago, five years ago, 10 years ago, or even longer, rather than focus on today or last week. Trends also suggest what the future will look like.
- Clear
To be successful, your informative speech must communicate your ideas without confusion. When a message is not organized clearly, audiences become frustrated and confused and, ultimately, they miss your ideas. Conducting careful audience analysis helps you understand what your audience already knows about your topic and allows you to offer a distinct, targeted message at their level of understanding. Choosing the best organizational pattern will also help your listeners understand your message. The following two strategies are designed to increase the clarity of your speech.
DEFINE UNFAMILIAR WORDS AND CONCEPTS. Unfamiliar words, especially technical jargon, can defeat your informative purpose. When introducing a new word, define it in a way your listeners can understand. Because you are so close to your material, knowing what to define can be one of your hardest tasks. Put yourself in the position of a listener who knows less about your topic than you do or ask a friend or colleague’s opinion.
In addition to explaining the dictionary definition of a concept or term, a speaker may rely on two common forms of definitions: operational and through example.
Operational definitions specify procedures for observing and measuring concepts. For example, in the United States an IQ test (Intelligence Quotient) is used to define how “smart” we are. According to Gregory (2004), someone who scores 95–100 is of average intelligence, a score of 120 or higher is above average, and a score of 155 or higher is considered “genius.” The government tells us who is “poor” based on a specified income level, and communication researchers can determine if a person has high communication apprehension based on his or her score on McCroskey’s Personal Report of Communication Apprehension.Page 378
Definition through example helps the audience understand a complex concept by giving the audience a “for instance.” In an effort to explain what is meant by the term “white-collar criminal,” a speaker could provide several examples, such as Jeff Skilling (former Enron executive convicted on federal felony charges relating to the company’s financial collapse), Rod Blagojevich (former Illinois governor found guilty of several charges related to his trying to sell President Obama’s Illinois Senate seat), and Wesley Snipes (actor convicted of tax evasion and jailed for three years in December 2010).
CAREFULLY ORGANIZE YOUR MESSAGE. Find an organizational pattern that makes the most sense for your specific purpose. Descriptive speeches, speeches of demonstration, and speeches of explanation have different goals. Therefore, you must consider the most effective way to organize your message. Descriptive speeches are often arranged in spatial, topical, and chronological patterns. For example, if a speaker chose to talk about Oktoberfest in Munich, a topical speech might talk about the beer tents, food possibilities, entertainment, and tourist activities. A speech following a chronological pattern might talk about when to start planning for the festival, when the festival begins, and what events occur on particular days. The topic is still Oktoberfest, but based on the organizational pattern, the speech focuses differently and contains different information.
Speeches of demonstration often use spatial, chronological, and cause-and-effect or problem–solution patterns. For example, in a speech on how to buy a home, a few organizational patterns are possible, depending on what aspect of the topic you chose as your focus. It would make sense to organize spatially if your focus is on what to examine as you search for homes. You might want to start with the roof and work down toward the basement (or vice versa) or you might look at the lot and outside features and then move inside. The lot could be divided into small parts, such as how big the lot is, how close neighbors are, what the view is all around the house, how much maintenance is needed on the lot, and so on. As you move inside, you could talk about the number of rooms, electricity, plumbing, access (stairs, attic, or crawl space), and so on.
A chronological pattern for how to buy a house would be more appropriate when talking about getting a real estate agent, finding a house, setting up financing, getting an appraisal, making an offer, getting the house appraised, and accepting a counter-offer. As you can see, the speech that is set up to follow a spatial pattern is significantly different than the speech that uses a chronological pattern.
Speeches of explanation are frequently arranged chronologically, or topically, or according to cause-and-effect or problem–solution. For example, Page 379for several years, the Asian carp has made headlines in the Great Lakes area because of its potential to harm the habitat of the Great Lakes. Using the Asian carp as a topic, a speech arranged chronologically could discuss how this threat has developed over the last decade, and what the future projection is. A problem–solution speech, on the other hand, could talk about the dangers related to the fish invasion of the Great Lakes and possible solutions to the problem. Important with the second organizational pattern is that the speech be kept as informative as possible, and not identify the “best” solution.
- Meaningful
A meaningful, informative message focuses on what matters to the audience as well as to the speaker. Relate your material to the interests, needs, and concerns of your audience. A speech explaining the differences between public and private schools delivered to the parents of students in elementary and secondary schools would not be as meaningful in a small town where no choice exists. Here are two strategies to help you develop a meaningful speech:
CONSIDER THE SETTING. The setting may tell you about audience goals. Informative speeches are given in many places, including classrooms, community seminars, and business forums. Audiences may attend these speeches because of an interest in the topic or because attendance is required. Settings tell you the specific reasons your audience has gathered.
AVOID INFORMATION OVERLOAD. Information overload can be frustrating and annoying because the listener experiences difficulty in processing so much information. Your job as an informative speaker is to know how much to say and, just as important, what to say. Long lists of statistics are mind-numbing. Be conscious of the relationship among time, purpose, and your audience’s ability to absorb information. Tie key points to stories, examples, anecdotes, and humor. Your goal is not to get it all in but to communicate your message as effectively as possible.
- Memorable
Speakers who are enthusiastic, genuine, and creative and who can communicate their excitement to their listeners deliver memorable speeches. Engaging examples, dramatic stories, and tasteful humor applied to your key ideas in a genuine manner will make a long-lasting impact.
USE EXAMPLES AND HUMOR. Nothing elicits interest more than a good example, and humorous stories are effective in helping the audience remember the material. When Sarah Weddington, winning attorney in the Roe v. Wade Supreme Court case, talks about the history of discriminatory practices in this country, she provides a personal example of how a bank required her husband’s signature on a loan even though she was working and he was in school. She also mentions playing “girls” basketball in school and being limited to three dribbles (boys could dribble the ball as many times as they wanted).Page 381
Physically involve your audience. Many occasions lend themselves to some type of audience participation. Consider asking for audience response to an observation: “Raise your hand if you have ever seen a tornado.” Seek help with your demonstration. If you are demonstrating how to make a cake, for example, you could ask someone to stir the batter. Ask some audience members to take part in an experiment that you conduct to prove a point. For example, hand out several headsets to volunteers and ask them to set the volume level where they usually listen to music. Then show how volume can affect hearing.
ethics in public speaking
idea that you have to balance the rights of the free speech
***first amendment. Is all speech protected by the First Amendment?
American citizens have the First Amendment right of freedom of speech.
***limitations on first amendment
Ultimately, limitations to our freedom of speech are decided by the U.S. Supreme Court. For example, the Supreme Court has ruled that dangerous speech, like falsely shouting “Fire!” in a movie theatre, is not protected by the First Amendment.
***what is the purpose of a speech
GENERAL PURPOSE. There are three general purposes for speeches:
To inform
To persuade
To entertain or inspire
different aspects of physical delivery
1 MOVE NATURALLY. Relax and use movement reasonably. Do not pace back and forth like a caged lion or make small darting movements that return you to the safety of the lectern.Page 300
2 TIE YOUR MOVEMENTS TO YOUR USE OF VISUAL AIDS. Walk over to the visual as you are presenting it and point to its relevant parts. Walk back to the lectern when finished. Aim for fluid movement.
3 BE PREPARED. Your instructor and the speaking environment will influence the opportunities for physical movement. Your instructor may allow or prohibit you from speaking behind a lectern or podium. In informal situations, it may be appropriate to walk through the aisles as you talk. In a small room, you can walk around without a microphone and still be heard. In a large room, you may need the help of a wireless microphone. Be prepared to adapt to your instructor’s rules and the speaking environment.
Remember that movement is a way to connect with the audience, get them involved, and keep their attention.
Facial Expressions
Our face not only provides information about our identity, age, and gender, it is the primary source of emotions. As we speak, our facial expressions change continually and are constantly monitored and interpreted by our listeners (Ivy & Wahl, 2014).Page 301
Japanese Prime Minister Shinzo Abe during his meeting with President of Ukraine Petro Poroshenko in Tokyo
Japanese politicians such as Prime Minister Shinzō Abe use more somber, serious expressions in their speeches when compared to Western countries.
© Drop of Light/Shutterstock.com
MATCH FACIAL EXPRESSIONS WITH YOUR TONE. Admittedly, there is much to consider when giving a speech, but sometimes we do not think about facial expressions. Your facial expression, however, should match the tone or emotion present in your speech. A serious tone in your voice should be accompanied by facial expressions that contribute to the serious tone.
SMILE, WHEN APPROPRIATE. Listeners also feel engaged when speakers smile. Even if you are nervous, work to demonstrate enthusiasm not only through your vocal qualities but also through facial expressions.
Eye Contact
No other aspect of nonverbal behavior is as important as eye contact, which is the connection you form with listeners through your gaze (Ivy & Wahl, 2014). Sustained eye contact can communicate confidence, openness, and honesty. It suggests you are a person of conviction, you care what your listeners are thinking, and you are eager for their feedback. When your eye contact is poor, you may be sending unintentional messages that the audience interprets as nervousness, hostility, being uncomfortable, or lack of interest. The audience may think you have something to hide or that you are not prepared.
Sometimes students only look at the instructor during their speeches. Also, some student speakers ignore half the class by looking at one side of the class only. When a speaker lacks eye contact, we sense that something is wrong. We offer the following three performance guidelines for reflection.
1 DISTRIBUTE YOUR GAZE EVENLY. Work on sustained eye contact with different members in the audience. Avoid darting your eyes around or sweeping the room with your eyes. Instead, maintain eye contact with a single person for a single thought. This may be measured in a phrase or a sentence. It may help to think of your audience as divided into several physical sectors. Focus on a person in each sector, rotating your gaze among the people and the sectors as you speak.
2 GLANCE ONLY BRIEFLY AND OCCASIONALLY AT YOUR NOTES. You may know your speech well, but when you are nervous, it may feel safer to keep looking at your notes. This is counterproductive. Do not keep your eyes glued to your notes.
3 DO NOT LOOK JUST ABOVE THE HEADS OF YOUR LISTENERS. Although this advice is often given to speakers who are nervous, it will be obvious to everyone that you are gazing into the air.Page 302
Appearance
Standards for appearance are influenced by culture and context (Ivy & Wahl, 2014; Wahl & Scholl, 2014). Americans visiting the Vatican will find that shoulders and knees should be covered in order to gain entry. It is okay to wear baseball caps outside, but in some contexts, it may be offensive to keep one on inside.
We do not have to move from one country to another to experience differences in perspectives on appearance. Some businesses allow more casual attire; others expect trendy, tailored clothing. As rhetorical theorist Kenneth Burke (1969, p. 119) reminds us, your clothes make a rhetorical statement of their own by contributing to your spoken message.
Your choice of shoes, suits, dresses, jewelry, tattoos, hairstyle, and body piercings should not isolate you from your listeners. If that occurs, the intent of your speech is lost. We offer the following guidelines for appearance, but the bottom line is, do nothing to distract from the message.
***Maslow’s hierarchy of needs: what are the core needs?
1) PHYSIOLOGICAL NEEDS.
the foundation of the hierarchy are our biological needs for food, water, oxygen, procreation, and rest.
2) SAFETY NEEDS.
need for security, freedom from fear and attack, a home that offers tranquility and comfort, and a means of earning a living.
3) BELONGINGNESS AND LOVE NEEDS.
our drive for affiliation, friendship, and love.
When appealing to the need for social belonging,.
4) ESTEEM NEEDS.
need to be seen as worthy and competent and to have the respect of others.
An effective approach would be to praise community members h
5) SELF-ACTUALIZATION NEEDS.
People who reach the top of the hierarchy seek to fulfill their highest potential through personal growth, creativity, self-awareness and knowledge, social responsibility, and responsiveness to challenge.
Your appeal to your audience’s sense of social responsibility would stress.
Maslow’s hierarchy of needs: what are we striving for?
5) SELF-ACTUALIZATION NEEDS.
People who reach the top of the hierarchy seek to fulfill their highest potential through personal growth, creativity, self-awareness and knowledge, social responsibility, and responsiveness to challenge.
Your appeal to your audience’s sense of social responsibility would stress.
Maslow’s hierarchy of needs: what is the most important?
1) PHYSIOLOGICAL NEEDS.
the foundation of the hierarchy are our biological needs for food, water, oxygen, procreation, and rest.
***What are the dimensions of speaker credibility?
COMPETENCE. In many cases, your audience will decide your message’s value based on perceived speaker competence. Your listeners will first ask Page 402themselves whether you have the background to speak. If the topic is crime, an audience is more likely to be persuaded by the Atlanta chief of police than by a postal worker delivering her personal opinions. Second, your audience will consider whether the content of your speech has firm support. When it is clear that speakers have not researched their topic, their ability to persuade diminishes. Finally, audiences will determine whether you communicate confidence and control of your subject matter through your delivery.
Prince Komatsu Akihito on 28 July 2016. at Tokyo, Japan. Prince Akihito was a 19th century diplomat and military leader.
In his position as Emperor, Akihito wields enormous persuasive power.
© Attila JANDI/Shutterstock.com
In our example above, Emperor Akihito makes clear that he is abreast of all the relevant information. He relays the strength of the earthquake, the results of the tsunami, and the seriousness of the nuclear disaster. Listeners quickly understood that he was well informed in this emergency. His display of competence by demonstrating an understanding of the facts increases his credibility even further.
TRUSTWORTHINESS. When someone is trying to persuade us to think or act a certain way, trusting that person is important. And although competence is important, research has shown that the trustworthy communicator is more influential than the untrustworthy one, regardless of his/her level of expertise (Wahl, 2013; Wahl & Maresh-Fuehrer, 2016).
Audience perceptions of trustworthiness are based largely on your perceived respect for them, your ethical standards, and your ability to establish common ground. Audiences gauge a speaker’s respect for them by analyzing the actions a speaker has taken before the speech. If a group is Page 403listening to a political candidate running for office in their community, they will have more respect for someone who has demonstrated concern for their community through past actions.
Trustworthiness is also influenced by the audience’s perception of your ethical standards. Telling the truth is paramount for the persuasive speaker. If your message is biased and you make little attempt to be fair or to concede the strength of your opponent’s point of view, your listeners may question your integrity.
Your credibility and your ability to persuade increase if you convince your audience that you share “common ground.” In the popular movie 300, Queen Gorgo addresses a reluctant Spartan Council, pleading with them to send the Spartan army into battle. Rather than appealing to the council as queen, she appeals to common ground in the opening: “Councilmen, I stand before you today not only as your Queen: I come to you as a mother; I come to you as a wife; I come to you as a Spartan woman; I come to you with great humility” (www.americanrhetoric.com).
While few can identify with being a queen, most feel a sense of identification with a humble mother, wife, woman, or citizen. With this common ground appeal in place, the stage is set for the queen to persuade the council to side with her. In this instance, Queen Gorgo establishes common ground by identifying with her audience and provoking them to identify with her.
DYNAMISM. Your credibility and, therefore, your ability to persuade are influenced by the audience’s perception of you as a dynamic spokesperson. Dynamic speakers tend to be vibrant, confident, vigorous, attractive, and skilled in public speaking. Your listeners will make critical decisions about how dynamic you are as they form a first impression. This impression will be reinforced or altered as they listen for an energetic style that communicates commitment to your point of view, and for ideas that build on one another in a convincing, logical way. While charisma plays a part in being dynamic, it is not enough. Dynamic public speakers tend to be well-practiced presenters.
Does credibility make a difference in your ability to persuade? Pornitakpan (2004), who examined five decades of research on the persuasiveness of speaker credibility, found that “a high-credibility source is more persuasive than is a low-credibility source in both changing attitudes and gaining behavioral compliance” (p. 266). Lifelong learning in the art of persuasion involves building and enhancing your speaker competence, trustworthiness, and dynamism.
***the difference between spoken and written style
Written language tends to be more complex and intricate than speech with longer sentences and many subordinate clauses. The punctuation and layout of written texts also have no spoken equivalent. However some forms of written language, such as instant messages and email, are closer to spoken language.
***Definition of Ethos
Speaker credibility.
***Definition of Logos
An appeal that is rational and reasonable based on evidence provided.
**Definition of Pathos
Persuading through emotional appeals.
***Definition of Mythos
A term given when content supports a claim by reminding an audience how the claim is consistent with cultural identity.
***Definition of antithesis
The use of contrast, within a parallel grammatical structure, to make a rhetorical point.
***Definition of active voice
When the verb of a sentence is in the active voice, the subject is doing the acting, as in the sentence “Kevin hit the ball.” Kevin (the subject of the sentence) acts in relation to the ball.
***Definition of passive voice
A verb is in the passive voice when the subject of the sentence is acted on by the verb. … For example, in “The ball was thrown by the pitcher,” the ball (the subject) receives the action of the verb, and was thrown is in the passive voice.
***Definition of analogies
Establishes common links between similar and not-so-similar concepts.
***Definition of metaphors
A symbol that tells your listeners that you are saying more; state that something is something else.
***Definition of innuendo
Veiled lies, hints, or remarks that something is what it is not.
***Definition of anaphora
The repetition of the same word or phrase at the beginning of successive clauses or sentences.
***Definition of alliteration
The repetition of the initial consonant or initial sounds in a series of words.
***Definition of similes
Create images as they compare the characteristics of two different things using words “like” and “as.”
What does the PARTS stand for?
It is A mnemonic for building your information literacy through
P Point of View A Authority R Reliability T Timeliness S Scope
***5 functions of support in a speech
1) SUPPORT IS SPECIFIC.
2) SUPPORT HELPS TO CLARIFY IDEAS.
3) SUPPORT ADDS WEIGHT. The use of credible statistics and expert opinion
This type of support convinces listeners by building a body of evidence that may be difficult to deny.
4) SUPPORT IS APPROPRIATE TO YOUR AUDIENCE.
5) SUPPORT CREATES INTEREST. When used properly, supporting materials can transform ordinary details into a memorable presentation.
***Fallacies:
Ad hominem
This fallacy occurs when, instead of addressing someone’s argument or position, you irrelevantly attack the person or some aspect of the person who is making the argument. The fallacious attack can also be direct to membership in a group or institution.
***Fallacies:
Bandwagoning
Unethical speakers may convince listeners to support their point of view by telling them that “everyone else” is already involved.
***Fallacies:
glittering generalities
rely on the audience’s emotional responses to values such as home, country, and freedom.
the audience’s response so that critical judgments about major issues are clouded in other areas is unethical.
***Fallacies:
testimonials
can be both helpful and destructive.
***Fallacies:
plainfolks
statements crafted to create false identification with the audience.
Fallacies:
Name calling
linking a person or group with a negative symbol
***Fallacies: slippery slope
This fallacy claims there will be a chain reaction that will end in some dire consequence.
***Definition of values
socially shared ideas about what is good, right, and desirable. They propel us to speak and act.
***Definition of intrinsic ethos and extrinsic ethos
intrinsic ethos is the ethical appeal found in the actual speech, including such aspects as supporting material, argument flow, and source citation
extrinsic ethos is a speaker’s image in the mind of the audience. Extrinsic aspects include how knowledgeable, trustworthy, and dynamic the speaker is perceived to be.
***Definition of dialog communication
dialogic communication entails an honest concern for listeners’ interests. This kind of speech “communicates trust, mutual respect and acceptance, open-mindedness, equality, empathy, directness, lack of pretense, and non-manipulative intent.
***Definition of monologic communication
Author-centered speakers engage in monologic communication. They view the audience as an object to be manipulated and freely use deception, superiority, exploitation, dogmatism, domination, insincerity, pretense, coercion, distrust, and defensiveness—all qualities considered unethical.
List 5 Guidelines for ethical speaking
- Protect your credibility
- Engage in Dialogue, not Monologue
- Stand by Four Principles of Ethical Speech
- Protect the Common Good
- Speak Truthfully
***Guidelines for ethical speaking:
Protect your credibility
(also list other 4)
- Protect your credibility: speakers can abuse their ethical relationship with their listeners when:
- they misinterpret information or fail to collect all the information needed to give a complete and fair presentation
- when self-interest leads them to dishonesty and lack of goodwill.
- extrinsic and intrinsic ethos - Engage in Dialogue, not Monologue
- Stand by Four Principles of Ethical Speech
- Protect the Common Good
- Speak Truthfully
Guidelines for ethical speaking:
Stand by Four Principles of Ethical Speech (also list other 4)
- Stand by Four Principles of Ethical Speech
1) Search: putting forth an effort to learn enough about your topic to speak knowledgeably
.2) Justice: select and present facts and opinions openly and fairly. Instead of attempts to distort or conceal evidence, just speakers offer the audience the opportunity to make fair judgments.
3) Public Motivation: contrast to public motivation are hidden agendas.
4) Respect for Dissent: allows for and encourages diversity of argument and opinion. It involves seeing a different point of view as a challenge rather than a threat. It means being open to accepting views different from one’s own. This does not mean we have to give in when we disagree.
- Protect your credibility
- Engage in Dialogue, not Monologue
- Protect the Common Good
- Speak Truthfully
Guidelines for ethical speaking:
Engage in Dialogue, not Monologue
(also list other 4)
2.Engage in Dialogue, not Monologue
Author-centered speakers engage in monologic communication. They view the audience as an object to be manipulated and freely use deception, superiority, exploitation, dogmatism, domination, insincerity, pretense, coercion, distrust, and defensiveness—all qualities considered unethical.
dialogic communication entails an honest concern for listeners’ interests. This kind of speech “communicates trust, mutual respect and acceptance, open-mindedness, equality, empathy, directness, lack of pretense, and non-manipulative intent.
- Protect your credibility
- Stand by Four Principles of Ethical Speech
- Protect the Common Good
- Speak Truthfully
Guidelines for ethical speaking:
Protect the Common Good
(also list other 4)
4.Protect the Common Good: As speakers, we strive to be aware that we have the power to persuade and the power to pass on information to others—powers that must be used for the common good.
- Protect your credibility
- Engage in Dialogue, not Monologue
- Stand by Four Principles of Ethical Speech5.Speak Truthfully
Guidelines for ethical speaking:
Speak Truthfully
(also list other 4)
5.Speak Truthfully: be certain of your facts.
- Protect your credibility
- Engage in Dialogue, not Monologue
- Stand by Four Principles of Ethical Speech
- Protect the Common Good
***5 ethical pitfalls:
1) Purposeful Ambiguity
2) Rumors and Innuendo
3) Herd Mentality
4) Hidden Agendas
5) Excessive and Inappropriate Emotional Appeals
ethical pitfalls:
Purposeful Ambiguity
leave out specific detail, we can paint a misleading picture
ethical pitfalls:
Rumors and Innuendo
Rumors are unproven charges, usually about an individual.
Innuendos are veiled lies, hints, or remarks that something is what it is not.
ethical pitfalls:
Herd Mentality
Speaking in support of the public good implies a willingness to air a diversity of opinions, even when these opinions are unpopular.
ethical pitfalls:
Hidden Agendas
An ethical speaker is transparent while offering the strongest possible legitimate arguments, allowing each listener to evaluate the argument on its merits.
ethical pitfalls:
Excessive and Inappropriate Emotional Appeals
speakers prey on our fears or ignorance and rely heavily on the use of excessive and inappropriate appeals to emotion.
four circumstances that create ethical concern.
DECEPTION. Your speech creates a need in your audience through deception and requires an action that will primarily benefit you.
MANIPULATION. This emotional appeal is aimed at taking advantage of those particularly susceptible to manipulation.
CONFUSION. Emotional appeals are part of a sustained plan to confuse an audience and make them feel insecure and helpless.
***What is a fallacy?
the speaker disguises messages and deceives listeners to achieve his or her goal with specific strategies
informational literacy:
What does the P in PARTS stand for?
POINT OF VIEW. Recognize whether there is a point of view or bias. Is the information making every attempt at being objective or is it likely biased to serve a special interest?
Discerning the point of view is critical to consuming information intelligently.
informational literacy:
What does the A in PARTS stand for?
AUTHORITY. Consider the credentials of both the author and publisher. Are they recognized as experts and/or leaders in the field? Does the author hold a terminal degree such as Ph.D. or M.D.? Is the publisher a scholarly or reputable news source? The issue of authority is challenging online.
The person who is responsible for content on some web pages and blogs is not always clear. In these cases,
it is best to look for independent confirmation in other locations to ensure accuracy.
informational literacy:
What does the R in PARTS stand for?
RELIABILITY. Even if the point of view seems unbiased and the source checks out, consider whether you can believe in the accuracy and treatment of the information. Reliability is related to the credibility, or believability, of the source.
If a science community came to these conclusions after independent tests, the information has greater credibility.
An ethical speaker will look for the most recent, authentic, and unbiased information.
informational literacy:
What does the T T in PARTS stand for?
TIMELINESS. Timeliness refers to how current the information is.
Evaluate how important recent information is to your topic as you gather information.
informational literacy:
What does the S in PARTS stand for?
SCOPE. Scope refers to the extent of your research.
Check to see that your research has both depth and breadth appropriate for the topic and audience.
Does the information create an overview or develop a narrow portion of your topic?
Who is the information intended for, and is any information too technical or too basic?
***3 Ethical Listening Responsibilities
1) BE AWARE OF DISTRACTIONS refers to your ability to overcome distractions including extraneous noise in the environment and the speaker’s mannerisms
2) CHECK YOUR EMOTIONS acknowledges that we all have an internal world of emotionsThe key is to maintain an objective distance from the subject and messenger.
3) THINK CRITICALLY ABOUT THE MESSAGE. Critical thinking is possible only when we have first eliminated distractions and controlled our emotions.
Essential for Excellence: practical tips for ethical speaking
Show respect for your audience.
Be honest and don’t mislead your audience
Ensure your objective is ethical.
Forms of Support (FASET)
What does F stand for
explain 3 purposes
Describe guidelines for using facts
Facts: serve at least three purposes:
FACTS CLARIFY YOUR MAIN POINT. Facts remove ambiguity, making it more likely that the message you send is the message your audience will receive.
FACTS INDICATE YOUR KNOWLEDGE OF THE SUBJECT. Your audience wants to know that you have researched the topic and can discuss specifics about your topic.
FACTS DEFINE. Facts provide needed definitions that may explain new concepts.
Guidelines for Using Facts
1) CAREFULLY DETERMINE HOW MANY FACTS TO USE. Too few facts reveal that you spent little time researching, while too many may overwhelm your listeners. To be effective, the number and complexity of the facts must be closely tied to the needs of your listeners.
2) DEFINE TERMS WHEN THEY ARE INTRODUCED. The first time you use a term that requires explanation, define it so your meaning is clear
3) MAKE SURE YOUR MEANINGS ARE CLEAR. If words or phrases have different meanings to you than they do to members of your audience, the impact of your speech is lessened. Misunderstandings occur when your audience attributes meanings to terms you did not intend.
***Forms of Support (FASET)
1) Facts
2) Analogies
3) Statistics
4) Examples
5) Testimony
***Primary sources vs. Secondary sources
Primary information is directly associated with its producer, such as a personal diary, original government document, or a news broadcast.
Secondary sources are reproductions or references of primary source material cited by other writers.
Forms of Support (FASET)
What does S stand for
explain and list 4 guidelines for using statistics
STATISTICS: the collection, analysis, interpretation, and presentation of information in numerical form. Statistics give us the information necessary to understand the magnitude of issues and to compare and contrast different points.STATISTICS CAN BE MISLEADING.
1) BE PRECISE. Make sure you understand the statistics before including them in your speech.
2) AVOID USING TOO MANY STATISTICS. Too many statistics will confuse and bore your audience and blunt the impact of your most important statistical points. Save your statistics for the places in your speech where they will make the most impact.
3) CITE YOUR SOURCES. Because statistics are rarely remembered for very long, it is easy for speakers to misquote and misuse them—often in a calculated way for their own ends. As an ethical speaker, you need to make sure your statistics are correct and you need to quote your sources.
4) USE VISUAL AIDS TO EXPRESS STATISTICS. Statistics become especially meaningful to listeners when they are presented in visual form. Visual presentations of statistics free you from the need to repeat a litany of numbers that listeners will probably never remember. Instead, by transforming these numbers into visual presentations, you can highlight only the most important points, allowing your listeners to refer to the remaining statistics at any time.
Forms of Support (FASET) What does A stand for explain 2 types (figurative and literal) 3 guidelines for using them
Analogies
two categories:
1) Figurative analogies draw comparisons between things that are distinctly different in an attempt to clarify a concept or persuade. Keep in mind that while figurative analogies may be helpful, they usually do not serve as sufficient proof in a persuasive argument.
2) A literal analogy compares like things from similar classes, such as a game of professional football with a game of college football. Literal analogies serve as proof when the aspects or concepts compared are similar.
Guidelines for Using Analogies
1) USE ANALOGIES TO BUILD THE POWER OF YOUR ARGUMENT. Analogies convince through comparison to something the audience already knows.
2) BE CERTAIN THE ANALOGY IS CLEAR. Even when the concept of your analogy is solid, if the points of comparison are not effectively carried through from beginning to end, the analogy will fail.
3) AVOID USING TOO MANY ANALOGIES. A single effective analogy can communicate your point. Do not diminish its force by including several in a short presentation.
Forms of Support (FASET)
What does E stand for
explain and list 3 guidelines for using
EXAMPLES:
EXAMPLES ARE BRIEF OR EXTENDED. Brief examples are short illustrations that clarify a general statement. .
Extended examples are longer and richer in detail than brief examples. They are used most effectively to build images and to create a lasting impression on the audience. Because of their impact, extended examples should not be overused or used at inappropriate points. As with other forms of support, they should be reserved for the points at which they will have the greatest effect: in clarifying the message, persuading listeners to your point of view, or establishing a speaker–audience relationship.
EXAMPLES ARE REAL OR HYPOTHETICAL. Sometimes the best examples are real, and come from your personal experience.
Hypothetical examples are useful when you want to exaggerate a point or when you cannot find a factual illustration for your speech. To be effective, they must be tied in some way to the point you are trying to illustrate.
EXAMPLES CAN BE IN NARRATIVE FORM. Narratives are stories within a speech; anecdotes that create visual images in listeners’ minds.
3 guidelines for using examples:
1.USE EXAMPLES FREQUENTLY. Examples are often the lifeblood of a speech.
- USE ONLY THE AMOUNT OF DETAIL NECESSARY. To make your examples work, you want to use only the amount of detail necessary for your audience and no more.
- USE EXAMPLES TO EXPLAIN NEW CONCEPTS. Difficult concepts become easier to handle when you clarify them with examples. Keep in mind that your listeners might be hearing about complex concepts for the first time. The quality of your examples can make the difference between communicating with and losing your audience.
Forms of Support (FASET)
What does T stand for
explain and know
3 types (experience, opinion, short quotation)
4 guidelines for use
TESTIMONY: cite the words of others, either directly or through paraphrasing, you are attempting, in effect, to strengthen your position by telling your audience that people with special knowledge support your position or take your side
2 types:
1) EXPERIENCE AS TESTIMONY. Experience may be the most credible choice in some cases because someone was “on the scene.” It is possible to use your own testimony when you are an expert.
2) OPINION AS TESTIMONY. In some circumstances, the opinion of a recognized authority may provide the credibility needed to strengthen your argument or prove a point.
3) SHORT QUOTATIONS. used to set the tone of a speech, to provide humor, or to make important points more memorable
4 Guidelines for Using Testimony
1) USE ONLY RECOGNIZABLE OR CREDIBLE TESTIMONY AND QUOTATIONS.
2) CHOOSE UNBIASED EXPERTS.
3) IDENTIFY THE SOURCE.
4) DEVELOP TECHNIQUES TO SIGNAL THE BEGINNING AND ENDING OF EACH QUOTATION. Your audience may not know when a quote begins or ends.
4 Guidelines for Using Testimony
1) USE ONLY RECOGNIZABLE OR CREDIBLE TESTIMONY AND QUOTATIONS.
2) CHOOSE UNBIASED EXPERTS.
3) IDENTIFY THE SOURCE.
4) DEVELOP TECHNIQUES TO SIGNAL THE BEGINNING AND ENDING OF EACH QUOTATION. Your audience may not know when a quote begins or ends.
CH 2 What are ethics, and what are some potential sources of ethics today?
2Ethical Systems
When there is no obvious ethically right position, then what?
Aristotle suggested discovering the middle ground or “golden mean” between two extreme alternatives.
When faced with an aggressive act, we might respond with fighting or fleeing (extremes) or discussion and negotiation (golden mean).
Christianity suggests the “golden rule,” that we should treat others as we would like to be treated ourselves
Philosophers Jeremy Bentham and John Stuart Mill suggested using utilitarianism as a yardstick and suggested that the greater good is that which serves the greatest number of people involved.
Professional organizations create and adhere to codes of ethics.
These codes provide ground rules of ethical behavior within the context of that profession
directives as
avoiding conflicts of interest,
providing accurate and timely information
not abusing power of position for personal gain
preserving confidentiality and due process
honoring all laws and regulations
operating in a transparent and forthright manner are good examples. .
2 What are the listener’s responsibilities , and what is meant by ethical listening attitudes and behaviors?
Listening Responsibilities
It is your responsibility to decide when to tune in or dismiss a message that is being presented to you.
for the communication process to work effectively listeners should be aware of distractions, check our emotions, and think critically about the message.1.
BE AWARE OF DISTRACTIONS
including extraneous noise in the environment and the speaker’s mannerisms.
First in our process of ethical listening is to tune in to the message.
CHECK YOUR EMOTIONS
Maintaining emotional control and perspective, not being overly aroused or turned off by emotional appeals, and not allowing emotionally charged past experiences with the topic to distract us are all possible.
The key is to maintain an objective distance from the subject and messenger.
THINK CRITICALLY ABOUT THE MESSAGE.
Critical thinking is possible only when we have first eliminated distractions and controlled our emotions.
discern main points,
kinds and quality of support materials,
what logical arguments are being used.
If the message itself cannot stand up to your critical thinking, it is ethical to tune out.
Ethical Listening Attitude and Behaviors
Adopting an attitude of empathy for the speaker and finding compassion for their situation and interest in their message, even if you suspect you might disagree, communicates that you are interested in dialogue and are open minded.
To that empathetic attitude you may add supportive nonverbal behaviors like strong eye-contact, head nods, and a smile.
Such cues help ease speakers so they can give you their best.
When our attitudes and actions either purposefully or accidentally derail someone’s message, we are being unethical listeners in the communication interchange.
What role do values play in ethics?
2Values are socially shared ideas about what is good, right, and desirable. They propel us to speak and act.
What is the difference between intrinsic and extrinsic ethos? Can you offer examples?
2there is extrinsic ethos, the authority, education and experience of a speaker or author, and intrinsic ethos, the way the speaker goes about the act of persuading, meaning that he or she is skilled or unskilled with language and terminology.
If given information about a source, could you analyze it using PARTS?
2Certain sources have more credibility than others.
When collecting supporting material for a speech, you want to determine whether you are reviewing materials from a credible professional or someone who is simply writing a story, creating a web-based commerce site, or ranting in a blog. This is not as difficult as it might seem once you understand all the parts of the process.
A handy way to ensure your information literacy is found in the acronym PARTS.
POINT OF VIEW. Recognize whether there is a point of view or bias. a) Discerning the point of view is critical to consuming information intelligently.
AUTHORITY. Consider the credentials of both the author and publisher.
Are they recognized as experts and/or leaders in the field?
Does the author hold a terminal degree such as Ph.D. or M.D.?
Is the publisher a scholarly or reputable news source?.
RELIABILITY. Even if the point of view seems unbiased and the source checks out, consider whether you can believe in the accuracy and treatment of the information.
An ethical speaker will look for the most recent, authentic, and unbiased information.
TIMELINESS. Timeliness refers to how current the information is.
Evaluate how important recent information is to your topic as you gather information.
SCOPE. Scope refers to the extent of your research.
Check to see that your research has both depth and breadth appropriate for the topic and audience.
Does the information create an overview or develop a narrow portion of your topic?
Who is the information intended for, and is any information too technical or too basic?
Is the information appropriate for a college audience?
What is incremental plagiarism?
2Incremental plagiarism is plagiarism that occurs when most of the speech is the speaker’s original work, but quotes or other information have been used without being cited. Listening. Listening is the process of interpreting, or making sense of, sounds.
What guidelines does the book have for speaking ethically?
2Protect your Credibility
Aristotle defined ethos in terms of the intelligence, character, and goodwill a speaker communicates during a speech:
Speakers are untrustworthy in what they say or advise from one or more of the following causes.
Either through want of intelligence they form wrong opinions
while they form correct opinions, their rascality leads them to say what they do not think
while intelligent and honest enough, they are not well disposed [to the hearer, audience], and so perchance will fail to advise the best course, though they see it.
Aristotle believed speakers can abuse their ethical relationship with their listeners when they misinterpret information or fail to collect all the information needed to give a complete and fair presentation, and when self-interest leads them to dishonesty and lack of goodwill.
distinction between intrinsic ethos and extrinsic ethos.
intrinsic ethos is the ethical appeal found in the actual speech, including such aspects as supporting material, argument flow, and source citation,
extrinsic ethos is a speaker’s image in the mind of the audience. Extrinsic aspects include how knowledgeable, trustworthy, and dynamic the speaker is perceived to be..
Engage in Dialogue, not Monologue
Monologic versus dialogic communication tendencies is one clear indicator of ethical speaking.
monologic communication Auther-centered speaker They view the audience as an object to be manipulated and freely use deception, superiority, exploitation, dogmatism, domination, insincerity, pretense, coercion, distrust, and defensivenes
all qualities considered unethical.
dialogic communication entails an honest concern for listeners’ interests. This kind of speech “communicates trust, mutual respect and acceptance, open-mindedness, equality, empathy, directness, lack of pretense, and nonmanipulative intent.
The speaker’s aim is one of assisting the audience in making independent, self-determined decisions”.
Stand by 4 Principles of Ethical Speech.
1) SEARCH
Search refers to putting forth an effort to learn enough about your topic to speak knowledgeably.
If your search is half-hearted or incomplete, you might mislead others and cause harm.
2) JUSTICE
Justice reminds us to select and present facts and opinions openly and fairly. Instead of attempts to distort or conceal evidence,
just speakers offer the audience the opportunity to make fair judgments..
3) PUBLIC MOTIVATION
A student may be motivated to give an informative speech on the warning signs of dementia. She has reliable information on dementia and her motive is to illuminate a public problem. This is public motivation.
In contrast to public motivation are hidden agendas.
uses fear appeals and biased, one-sided arguments to convince
Keeping such hidden agendas is unethical behavior.
Ethical speakers reveal personal motives as well as the sources of their information and opinion.
full disclosure and transparency
assists the audience in weighing any special bias, prejudices, and self-centered motivations in a message.
RESPECT FOR DISSENT
Respect for dissent allows for and encourages diversity of argument and opinion.
It involves seeing a different point of view as a challenge rather than a threat. It means being open to accepting views different from one’s own. This does not mean we have to give in when we disagree.
4) Protect the Common Good
Speakers travel to campuses across the country to address a wide range of issues related to race, ethnicity, poverty, public health, alcoholism, immigration, and national security, to name a few.
Some speakers are recruited by organizations on campus; others advertise their expertise in the hopes of being allowed to speak. They know they can inform audiences, they can move them emotionally, or they can move them to act.
5) Speak Truthfully
be certain of your facts.
When your listeners realize your facts are wrong, they will trust you less.
What are the various ethical pitfalls raised by the text?
- Purposeful Ambiguity
When we leave out specific detail, we can paint a misleading picture.
Choose words carefully to communicate your point.
choose your supporting materials carefully.
Ambiguities often stem from inadequate or sloppy research. - Rumors and Innuendos
It is unethical to base your speeches on rumors.
Rumors are unproven charges, usually about an individual.
It is unethically to use innuendo to support a point.
Innuendos are veiled lies, hints, or remarks that something is what it is not. Innuendo frequently surfaces in the heat of a strongly contested political race. - Herd Mentality
Speaking in support of the public good implies a willingness to air a diversity of opinions, even when these opinions are unpopular.
Your goal as a speaker can be to encourage the “ideal of the best ideas rising to the surface of debate”
Despite the tradition of free speech in Western society, taking an unpopular stand at the podium is not easy, especially when the speaker faces the threat of repercussions.
Page 57 - Hidden Agendas
An ethical speaker is transparent while offering the strongest possible legitimate arguments, allowing each listener to evaluate the argument on its merits. - Excessive and Inappropriate Emotional Appeals
Some speakers prey on our fears or ignorance and rely heavily on the use of excessive and inappropriate appeals to emotion.
DECEPTION. Your speech creates a need in your audience through deception and requires an action that will primarily benefit you..
MANIPULATION. This emotional appeal is aimed at taking advantage of those particularly susceptible to manipulation..
CONFUSION. Emotional appeals are part of a sustained plan to confuse an audience and make them feel insecure and helpless..
What is the difference between dialogic and monologic communication?
2monologic communication Auther-centered speaker They view the audience as an object to be manipulated and freely use deception, superiority, exploitation, dogmatism, domination, insincerity, pretense, coercion, distrust, and defensivenes
all qualities considered unethical.
dialogic communication entails an honest concern for listeners’ interests. This kind of speech “communicates trust, mutual respect and acceptance, open-mindedness, equality, empathy, directness, lack of pretense, and nonmanipulative intent.
What is ethos and why is it important?
2the characteristic spirit of a culture, era, or community as manifested in its beliefs and aspirations
Who ultimately decides issues of Free Speech?
2 limitations to our freedom of speech are decided by the U.S. Supreme Court. For example, the Supreme Court has ruled that dangerous speech, like shouting “Fire!” in a movie theatre, is not protected by the First Amendment.
What kinds of questions can speakers ask themselves in order to avoid unethical research and delivery practices?
2
Speakers are untrustworthy in what they say or advise from one or more of the following causes.
Either through want of intelligence they form wrong opinions
while they form correct opinions, their rascality leads them to say what they do not think
while intelligent and honest enough, they are not well disposed [to the hearer, audience], and so perchance will fail to advise the best course, though they see it.
What principles of ethical speech does the textbook offer? Can you give an example?
2Stand by 4 Principles of Ethical Speech.
1) SEARCH
Search refers to putting forth an effort to learn enough about your topic to speak knowledgeably.
If your search is half-hearted or incomplete, you might mislead others and cause harm.
2) JUSTICE
Justice reminds us to select and present facts and opinions openly and fairly. Instead of attempts to distort or conceal evidence,
just speakers offer the audience the opportunity to make fair judgments..
3) PUBLIC MOTIVATION
A student may be motivated to give an informative speech on the warning signs of dementia. She has reliable information on dementia and her motive is to illuminate a public problem. This is public motivation.
In contrast to public motivation are hidden agendas.
uses fear appeals and biased, one-sided arguments to convince
Keeping such hidden agendas is unethical behavior.
Ethical speakers reveal personal motives as well as the sources of their information and opinion.
full disclosure and transparency
assists the audience in weighing any special bias, prejudices, and self-centered motivations in a message.
RESPECT FOR DISSENT
Respect for dissent allows for and encourages diversity of argument and opinion.
It involves seeing a different point of view as a challenge rather than a threat. It means being open to accepting views different from one’s own. This does not mean we have to give in when we disagree.
What does the “supporting materials” mean?
5Supporting material is the information used in a particular way to make your case.
Why is a research strategy important?
5make sure you know the constraints of the assignment as specified by your instructor.
What steps are involved in a research strategy?
5establish parameters regarding appropriate topics,
length of speech
minimum number of sources
What types of sources are allowed
What types of sources are not allowed
ANALYZE THE AUDIENCE. What are the needs, interests, and knowledge level of my audience?
ASSESS YOUR KNOWLEDGE/SKILL. What knowledge or skill do I have in relation to this topic?
SEARCH PRINT AND ONLINE RESOURCES. Based on available resources, where and what will I find most useful?
INTERVIEW, IF APPROPRIATE. Will interviewing someone with personal knowledge or expertise about this topic strengthen this speech?
Why is audience analysis important in the research strategy?
5Before you determine the general or specific purpose for your speech, consider your audience’s needs.
Careful audience analysis :Understanding your audience helps you develop specific questions that can be answered as you follow your search strategy.
information about who they are
what they know
what they value.
Reflect again on your audience after you have gathered information
determine whether you have collected enough material and if it is the right type of material to meet your audience’s needs and interests.
***What kinds of specific library resources are available?
5BOOKS. Keep in mind that libraries group books by subject, so as you look in the stacks for a particular book, it makes sense to peruse surrounding books for additional resources.
GENERAL REFERENCE MATERIALS. At the beginning of your search, it may be helpful to start with one or more general reference resources, including encyclopedias, dictionaries, biographical sources, and statistical sources. Most likely, your time spent with these materials will be short, but these resources can provide you with basic facts and definitions.
General encyclopedias (e.g., The Encyclopedia Americana and Encyclopedia Britannica) cover a wide range of topics in a broad manner.
specialized encyclopedias, such as the Encyclopedia of Religion and the International Encyclopedia of the Social Sciences, focus on particular areas of knowledge in more detail.
Articles in both general and specialized encyclopedias often contain bibliographies that lead you to additional sources.
BIOGRAPHICAL SOURCES. Biographical sources, which are international, national, or specialized, provide information on an individual’s education, accomplishments, and professional activities. This information is useful when evaluating someone’s credibility and reliability.
Librarians agree that biography.com is a useful online source for individuals currently famous or infamous.
STATISTICAL SOURCES. When used correctly, statistics provide powerful support. Facts and statistics give authority and credibility to research.
American Statistics Index (ASI) includes both an index and abstracts of statistical information published by the federal government.
Index to International Statistics (IIS)
Statistical Abstract of the United States (available online at www.census.gov/compendia/statab/).
MAGAZINES, NEWSPAPERS, AND JOURNALS.
provide the most recent print information. Once you identify ideas that connect with the needs of your audience, you can look for specific information in magazines and newspapers.
GOVERNMENT DOCUMENTS. Government documents are prepared by agencies, bureaus, and departments that monitor the affairs and activities of the nation. Documents are issued by
Office of the President
the U.S. Congress
the departments of Commerce, Agriculture, Education, Navy and Army, Indian Affairs, the Veterans’ Administration
the Food and Drug Administration
the FBI.
Through the U.S. Government Printing Office (GPO) one can find unique, authoritative, and timely materials, including detailed census data, vital statistics, congressional papers and reports, presidential documents, military reports, and impact statements on energy, the environment, and pollution. However, it is now archive only, and has been replaced, for the most part, by the Federal Digital System (FDsys).
In online searches, what is the difference between databases and other websites?
5Databases generally contain information from published works such as: magazines, newspaper articles, encyclopedias, journals, and other reference books. They are also searchable by keywords, subjects, authors, titles, and dates
Websites
Pages can be written by anyone, regardless of their level of expertise. Content is not necessarily checked or indicate when the information was updated. They often don’t provide the information necessary to create a complete citation. Websites are often not organized to support the needs of a student’s research project.
Why is support material important in a speech?
5o give your speech greater weight and authority
What is a narrative, and how does it relate to examples?
5a spoken or written account of connected events; a story.
How might testimony be used unethically?
5 if the testimony is taken out of context in order to change its meaning.
What’s the difference between a figurative and literal analogy? Can you provide examples of each?
5
Figurative analogy: Drawing comparisons between things that are distinctly different in an attempt to clarify a concept or persuade.
literal analogy,Compares like things from similar classes, such as a game of professional football with a game of college football; drawing comparisons between things that are similar in an attempt to clarify a concept or persuade.
Why is important to cite the sources of information in your speech?
5 A citation is the way you tell your readers that certain material in your work came from another source (plagiarism.org).
citing sources helps your listener distinguish your ideas from those of your sources, which will actually emphasize the originality of your own work.
serves two purposes.
First, it gives proper credit to the authors of the materials used.
Second, it allows those who are reading your work to duplicate your research and locate the sources that you have listed as references (www.olinuris.library.cornell.edu)..
Plagiarism is unethical, and it can result in academic punishment, public embarrassment, or damage to your career. We cannot underscore enough the importance of doing your own work and giving credit to sources.
***How much of your research needs to be cited in your speech?
5 Any research included in your speech needs to be cited appropriately to give due credit.
***Can you give an example of a database in the MSU library?
5 Data.gov :The home of the U.S. Government’s open data. Here you will find data, tools, and resources to conduct research, develop web and mobile applications, design …
When must you cite a source?
5Any research included in your speech needs to be cited appropriately to give due credit.
Can you identify the difference between correct and incorrect source citations?
5CORRECT SOURCE CITATION. In their 2016 book on intercultural communication, researchers Samovar, Porter, and McDaniel argue that travel has extended our sources of diversity because we can now be exposed “to cultural idiosyncrasies in the perception of time and space, the treatment of women and the elderly, the ways and means of conducting business, and even the discovery and meaning of truth.”
INCORRECT SOURCE CITATION. Researchers on intercultural communication argue international travel exposes us to many more aspects of culture than it used to, including observing how people treat women and the elderly, and how they conduct business.
EXPLANATION. We need the date to evaluate the timeliness of the material. We need to know this information was found in a book, as opposed to a TV show, a newspaper, magazine, or other source. We need the authors’ names so we know who wrote the information, and so we can find the book. (Remember that if this quote were on your outline, you would need to provide the page number after the quotation marks.)
EXAMPLE 2:
CORRECT SOURCE CITATION. According to a personal interview last week with Diane Ruyle, principal of Danube High School, fewer students are choosing vocational classes than they were 10 years ago.
INCORRECT SOURCE CITATION. According to Diane Ruyle, fewer students are choosing vocational classes.Page 169
EXPLANATION. We need to know why the speaker cited Diane Ruyle. As a principal, she ought to be able to provide accurate information regarding course selection. Adding “than they were 10 years ago” gives the listener a comparison basis. Also, we need to know that this interview was timely; it occurred “last week.”
EXAMPLE 3:
CORRECT SOURCE CITATION. According to an Associated Press article published in the New York Times on August 9, 2010, “[U]nlike in South Carolina, state laws in Iowa and New Hampshire require officials there to hold the first caucus and primary in the nation, respectively.”
INCORRECT SOURCE CITATION. Unlike in South Carolina, state laws in Iowa and New Hampshire require officials there to hold the first caucus and primary in the nation, respectively.
EXPLANATION. First, if this is published information, it should be cited. Second, since most of us do not know these facts, a citation is necessary. Otherwise, the listener may believe the speaker is making this up. The date provided allows us to check the source and shows us that the information is timely. No author was identified, and since Associated Press articles can be found in many newspapers, it is important to note this was found in the New York Times.
EXAMPLE 4:
CORRECT SOURCE CITATION. According to the American Diabetes Association website accessed last week, “Cholesterol is carried through the body in two kinds of bundles called lipoproteins—low-density lipoproteins and high-density lipoproteins. It’s important to have healthy levels of both.”
INCORRECT SOURCE CITATION. Cholesterol is carried through the body in two kinds of bundles called lipoproteins—low-density lipoproteins and high-density lipoproteins. It’s important to have healthy levels of both.
EXPLANATION. This information is not common knowledge, so it should be cited. Many organizations might include such information on their website, so it is important to note that it came from the American Diabetes Association (ADA). An audience would infer that the ADA is a credible organization regarding this topic. Using the words “last week” suggests current information on the ADA website, which reinforces the timeliness of the material
Ch. 7: What are the various ways a speaker can capture an audience’s attention?
7Startling Facts/Intriguing Statement : forces listeners to pay attention. They make it difficult to think of other things, the effectiveness of these introductions comes in part from the audience’s feeling that the speaker’s message is directed at them. Startling statements often challenge the listener. Instead of revealing the expected, the speaker takes a slightly—or perhaps even a radically—different turn.
Dramatic Story/Build Suspense
involves listeners in a tale from beginning to end.
Quotation and/or Literature Reference
You can capture audience attention by citing the words of others.
If you use an appropriate quotation, the words themselves may be compelling enough to engage your listeners.
Humor
helps break down the psychological barriers that exist between speaker and audience.
Humor works in this introduction for two reasons.
First, the story is genuinely funny
second, the humor is tied directly to the subject of the speech; it is appropriate for the topic and the occasion. It also provides an effective transition into the speech body.
Rhetorical Question
you ask a rhetorical question, however, you do not expect an answer. What you hope is that your question will cause your listeners to start thinking about the subject of your speech.
Illustrations, Examples, and Anecdotes
interesting comment about the immediate surroundings or some recent or historical event.
Even more powerful when the speaker carefully plans these comments. Through the skillful use of illustrations (“In the short time I will be talking with you, 150 violent crimes will have been committed in our nation”),
Physically Involve the Audience
speech about the importance of eating a good breakfast, a speaker could start by asking all students who ate breakfast to raise their hands. Then, the speaker could ask how many of those ate fast food, or ate eggs, or fruit. Depending on how the speaker defined a good breakfast, the questions could lead the speaker to comment that “Only a few of you had a good breakfast today. I hope to make a difference for tomorrow.”
A speaker talking about the need for exercise may ask the audience to jump up and down for a few moments.now
Relate a Personal Experience
Sharing a story or several examples from your past with your listeners can be an effective start. Be sure your personal experiences will not hurt your credibility and that they relate directly to your topic.
Use a Visual or Media Aid
the presidential seal. This is no accident; it helps to draw attention to the upcoming speech and also helps reinforce the president’s credibility.
Refer to the Situation
begin with a positive comment related to the occasion, the person who spoke before them, the audience, the date, or even the physical location. Each of these may be more appropriate at one time than at another.
When you are planning a speech, ask yourself if referencing the event, a prior speaker, the audience, or the significance of this date in history would create interest and gather attention.
***What is the difference between mood and tone?
7While “tone” is the writer’s attitude, “mood” is the feeling the reader gets from the writing.
Mood: general atmosphere or emotional complexion—in short, the array of feelings the work evokes
tone, analysis of the speaker’s attitude and how the audience perceives the overall message.
What is credibility?
7if you know your subject, care about your audience, offer an enthusiastic delivery, and communicate a sense of ethical integrity, your audience’s impression of your credibility will likely be positive. The content and delivery of your introduction must maximize these four aspects if you want your audience to listen attentively throughout your speech.
What is an example of a proper preview statement?
7The preview statement lets the audience know HOW you will develop the speech. A preview can be understood as a roadmap—a direction for the speech that leads to a successful conclusion. A preview lets the audience know what will come first, what comes next, and so on, to the end of the speech.
“I intend to explore several options during the rest of my speech.”) This simple statement helped her listeners make the intellectual connections they needed to follow her speech. Instead of wondering, “What will she talk about?” or “What is her point of view?” they were ready for her speech to unfold.
What kind of techniques does the book suggest for developing effective introductions? Can you offer examples?
10 techniques often used in introductions
Consider using one or combining several to provide the initial impact you want. a little creativity can go a long way. Keep your audience in mind. attention-gaining device must relate in some way to your topic or you run the risk of confusing your audience.
Startling Facts/Intriguing Statement : forces listeners to pay attention. They make it difficult to think of other things, the effectiveness of these introductions comes in part from the audience’s feeling that the speaker’s message is directed at them. Startling statements often challenge the listener. Instead of revealing the expected, the speaker takes a slightly—or perhaps even a radically—different turn.
Dramatic Story/Build Suspense
involves listeners in a tale from beginning to end.
Quotation and/or Literature Reference
You can capture audience attention by citing the words of others.
If you use an appropriate quotation, the words themselves may be compelling enough to engage your listeners.
Humor
helps break down the psychological barriers that exist between speaker and audience.
Humor works in this introduction for two reasons.
First, the story is genuinely funny
second, the humor is tied directly to the subject of the speech; it is appropriate for the topic and the occasion. It also provides an effective transition into the speech body.
Rhetorical Question
you ask a rhetorical question, however, you do not expect an answer. What you hope is that your question will cause your listeners to start thinking about the subject of your speech.
Illustrations, Examples, and Anecdotes
interesting comment about the immediate surroundings or some recent or historical event.
Even more powerful when the speaker carefully plans these comments. Through the skillful use of illustrations (“In the short time I will be talking with you, 150 violent crimes will have been committed in our nation”),
Physically Involve the Audience
speech about the importance of eating a good breakfast, a speaker could start by asking all students who ate breakfast to raise their hands. Then, the speaker could ask how many of those ate fast food, or ate eggs, or fruit. Depending on how the speaker defined a good breakfast, the questions could lead the speaker to comment that “Only a few of you had a good breakfast today. I hope to make a difference for tomorrow.”
A speaker talking about the need for exercise may ask the audience to jump up and down for a few moments.now
Relate a Personal Experience
Sharing a story or several examples from your past with your listeners can be an effective start. Be sure your personal experiences will not hurt your credibility and that they relate directly to your topic.
Use a Visual or Media Aid
the presidential seal. This is no accident; it helps to draw attention to the upcoming speech and also helps reinforce the president’s credibility.
Refer to the Situation
begin with a positive comment related to the occasion, the person who spoke before them, the audience, the date, or even the physical location. Each of these may be more appropriate at one time than at another.
When you are planning a speech, ask yourself if referencing the event, a prior speaker, the audience, or the significance of this date in history would create interest and gather attention.
***Under what circumstances are humor effective?
7helps break down the psychological barriers that exist between speaker and audience.
Humor works in this introduction for two reasons.
First, the story is genuinely funny
second, the humor is tied directly to the subject of the speech; it is appropriate for the topic and the occasion. It also provides an effective transition into the speech body.
***Should everyone try to use humor in their introductions?
7 No, if you are not comfortable with humor and elect to force it, both you and your listeners will feel awkward.
What’s the difference between illustrations, examples, and anecdotes?
7Illustrations, Examples, and Anecdotes
interesting comment about the immediate surroundings or some recent or historical event.
Even more powerful when the speaker carefully plans these comments. Through the skillful use of illustrations (“In the short time I will be talking with you, 150 violent crimes will have been committed in our nation”),
***What guidelines and suggestions does the book offer for introductions?
7Six Guidelines and Suggestions for Introductions
As you focus on crafting your introduction for your next speech, consider how you can create a strong and effective message. Remember, as in any recipe, no ingredient stands on its own. Attention to each part of the process leads to an excellent final product. After choosing the most appropriate beginning, consider these general guidelines as you prepare and deliver your introduction.
1. Prepare After the Body of the Speech
Your introduction will take form more easily after you have created an outline of the body of your speech. When speakers attempt to create the introduction first, they inevitably rewrite it several times as they continue to change the body of their message. However, some students find that writing the introduction after selecting a thesis and main points helps to “jump start” the rest of the creative process. In either case, the direction and key ideas are in place before the introduction is considered.
2. Make It Creative and Easy to Follow
Whether you are offering a startling statistic or asking a question, keep things simple. When you offer your thesis and even when you preview your main points, look for ways to be concise and straightforward.
3) Consider your introduction as an invitation to creativity.
The more creative your introduction, the more likely your audience will listen to the entire message.
4. Communicate High Energy by Being Well Practiced
The most important part of your speech to practice thoroughly is the introduction, followed by the conclusion, and then the body.
The first impression created by a well-practiced introduction lays the foundation for your ultimate success.
Strive to avoid looking at notes during your introduction.
5. Engage Audience Nonverbally Before You Start
Create a confident, energetic approach to the front.
Once there, pause, catch and hold your audience’s eye contact for a moment, and take a deep breath.
Your nonverbal messages are the first part audiences receive
6. Consider Time Constraints and Mood
When giving a five-minute speech, telling a protracted, dramatic story would be inappropriate.
Alternately, when delivering a 45-minute lecture, such a beginning would be wholly acceptable.
The mood you are hoping to create in your audience must be related to the tone you adopt as a speaker. The introduction is your best chance to establish your tone and alter the mood of your audience. Carefully consider what effects different introductions might have on mood. Capture the nonverbal elements of voice and body that reflect the best tone for delivering your message.
What are common pitfalls of introductions?
7Common Pitfalls of Introductions (you never get a second chance at a first impression)
Here is a list of problematic approaches to avoid during your introduction.
BEGINNING WITH AN APOLOGY. Do not use your introduction to apologize for mistakes you are likely to make, for inadequate visual aids, being ill prepared, or even just plain ill. Apologies set a negative tone that is hard to overcome.
BEING TOO BRIEF OR TOO LONG. Do not jump into the body of the speech or spend too much time setting up the speech. Your introduction should take between 10 and 20 percent of your total allotted speaking time.
GIVING TOO MUCH AWAY. While the introduction should provide a road map for your speech, you do not want to give the substance of your speech in your preview. Instead, use general terms to tell your audience what you intend to cover.
READING. We have advised you to rehearse your introduction thoroughly. Do not read your introductory remarks to your audience. Your script becomes a barrier between you and your audience. Worse yet, you will likely sound more like a reader than a public speaker. Avoid reading extensively in the introduction (or anywhere else).Page 237
RELYING ON SHOCK TACTICS. Your victory will be short lived if you capture audience attention by screaming at the top of your lungs, pounding the table, telling a bawdy joke, or using material that has nothing to do with your speech. Your audience will trust you less because of the way you manipulated their attention. Using an innovative approach can be effective as long as it is tied directly to the topic of your speech and is not over-the-top.
PROMISING TOO MUCH. Some speakers, fearful that their speech says too little, promise more than they can deliver, in the hope that the promise alone will satisfy their listeners. It rarely does. Once you set expectations in the introduction, the body of your speech has to deliver or you lose credibility.
USING UNNECESSARY PREFATORY REMARKS. Resist the urge to begin with “I’m so nervous,” “I can’t believe I have to do this speech,” or “Okay, deep breath, here we go.” Even if you feel these things, such verbal adaptors are likely to make you even more nervous and hurt your credibility. Instead, begin with your planned opening statement.
USING LONG-WINDED POEMS, QUOTATIONS, AND PROSE. We understand that for full effect, an entire piece of prose or poetry should be read. We also know that editing a poem or piece of prose may not be easy. However, it is possible to find an appropriate nugget embedded within the piece that is perfect for your speech. Consider paraphrasing or moving longer passages to the body of your speech.
BECOMING SOMEONE ELSE. Because your initial credibility is being established in the introduction, avoid histrionics and melodrama. Being true to yourself will earn the respect of your listeners.
OVERUSING SOME TECHNIQUES. Often overused are simple questions, rhetorical questions, and startling, catastrophic stories. This is made worse by relying on trite phrases. Spend some time thinking about how to begin your speech. Think about what might be most effective with your particular audience. Seek originality and creativity.
Why is it important to prepare the introduction after the body of the speech?
Prepare After the Body of the Speech
Your introduction will take form more easily after you have created an outline of the body of your speech. When speakers attempt to create the introduction first, they inevitably rewrite it several times as they continue to change the body of their message. However, some students find that writing the introduction after selecting a thesis and main points helps to “jump start” the rest of the creative process. In either case, the direction and key ideas are in place before the introduction is considered.
**What are the functions of conclusions?
7Functions of Conclusions
summarize important information
motivate listeners
create a sense of closure.
How can a speaker motivate an audience in the conclusion?
7Motivating Listeners (Accomplish three things)
RELATE YOUR TOPIC TO YOUR LISTENERS. Your speech will achieve the greatest success if your listeners feel you have helped them in some concrete way.
COMMUNICATE A FEELING. The conclusion sets the psychological mood listeners carry with them from the hall.
BROADEN YOUR MESSAGE. Finally, the conclusion can be used to connect your topic to a broader context.
If in your speech you talk about the responsibility of every adult to vote on election day, you can use your conclusion to tie the vote to the continuation of our democratic system.
How can a speaker develop a memorable conclusion? Can you give examples?
7Thanking as Transition
Although saying thank you at the end of the speech indicates you are finished, it is no substitute for a statement that brings your discussion to a close.
Call to Action
make a direct appeal to your listeners by urging them to take a specific action or to change their attitudes. In a persuasive speech, the conclusion is the most forcible and memorable place to position your final appeal.
Like asking the audience to call congressman
Use a Dramatic Illustration
Ending your speech with a dramatic story connected to your speech’s thesis reinforces the theme in your listeners’ minds. It is the last message of your speech the audience will hear and, as a story, it is the most likely to be remembered.
Conclude with a Quotation
Closing a speech with the words of others is an effective and memorable way to end your presentation.
Conclude with a Metaphor That Broadens the Meaning of Your Speech
You may want to broaden the meaning of your speech through the use of an appropriate metaphor—a symbol that tells your listeners that you are saying more.
Conclude with Humor
If you leave your listeners with a humorous story, you will leave them laughing and with a reservoir of good feelings about you and your speech.
Humor must be tied to your core idea.
***What is a call to action?
7Call to Action
make a direct appeal to your listeners by urging them to take a specific action or to change their attitudes. In a persuasive speech, the conclusion is the most forcible and memorable place to position your final appeal.
Like asking the audience to call congressman
***What are the common pitfalls of conclusions?
7 DON’T USE YOUR CONCLUSION TO INTRODUCE A NEW TOPIC. Develop your main and subordinate points in the body of your speech, not in the conclusion.
DON’T APOLOGIZE. Even if you are unhappy with your performance, do not apologize for your shortcomings when you reach the conclusion. Remarks like, “Well, I guess I didn’t have that much to say,” or “I’m sorry for taking so much of your time” are unnecessary and usually turn off the audience.
DON’T END ABRUPTLY. Just because you have made all your points does not mean that your speech is over. Your audience has no way of knowing you are finished unless you provide closure. A one-sentence conclusion is not sufficient closure.
DON’T CHANGE THE MOOD OR TONE. If your speech was serious, do not shift moods at the end. A humorous conclusion would be inappropriate and lessen the impact of your speech.
DON’T USE THE PHRASES “IN SUMMARY” OR “IN CONCLUSION” EXCEPT WHEN YOU ARE ACTUALLY AT THE END OF YOUR SPEECH. Some speakers use these phrases at various points in their speech, confusing listeners who expect an ending rather than a transition to another point.
DON’T ASK FOR QUESTIONS. Never risk asking, “Any questions?” Think about it, if there are no questions, you will be creating an awkward silence—hardly the climactic conclusion you were hoping for. If there is to be a question-and-answer session, consider it as a separate event from the speech. Complete your entire conclusion, receive your well-earned applause, and then field any questions.
DON’T IGNORE APPLAUSE. Graciously accept the praise of your audience by looking around the room and saying, “thank you.”
DON’T FORGET TO THANK YOUR AUDIENCE AND HOST. Part of your lasting positive impression will come from a sincere thanks offered to both your audience for their attention and your host for allowing you the opportunity to speak. This is true in many speaking situations, but does not apply to the general public speaking class.
DON’T RUN AWAY. Remember to keep your poise as you confidently make your retreat from the speaking platform. Being in too big a rush to sit down gives the appearance that you are glad it is over. You may be ready to leave, but stifle the urge to flee abruptly from the podium.
DON’T READ IT. Just as with the introduction, the delivery of the conclusion is important. Practice it enough that you are not dependent on your speaker’s notes. Eye contact with your audience as you wrap your message will reinforce your perceived credibility as well as your message’s importance. Having to rely heavily on notes, or worst of all, reading your conclusion, makes the ending of your message less satisfying to your audience.
***Ch. 8: What are the three C’s of language for public speaking?
8Clear, Concise, and Colorful.
What are the characteristics of spoken language?
8Characteristics of Spoken Language
While auto-translation technology has made significant strides, it still has a long way to go. Poor translations can have major implications you will need to rely on your communication expertise to avoid poor or offensive communication.
Word Order
the order in which ideas should be arranged in a sentence.
In general, the last idea presented is the most powerful.
Because speech is slower than silent reading, individual words take on more importance, especially those appearing at the end of the sentence.
Rhythm
The second characteristic of spoken language is rhythm. It is the speech flow or pattern that is created in many ways, including variations in sentence length, the use of parallel structure, and the expression of images in groups of three.
VARY SENTENCE LENGTH. First, create rhythm by varying sentence length. The rhythm of speech is affected by how well you combine sentences of varying lengths. Long sentences can be confusing and short sentences might be dull and simple, but a combination of long and short sentences adds rhythmic interest.
USE PARALLEL STRUCTURE. Second, create rhythm by using parallel structure. Parallelism involves the arrangement of a series of words, phrases, or sentences in a similar form. Classically, this is done in two ways: anaphora and epistrophe.
Anaphora is the repetition of the same word or phrase at the beginning of successive clauses or sentences,
I’m so proud to represent American humor, I am proud to be an American, and I am proud to make my home in the “’not real”’ America. And I am most proud that during trying times, like an orange [terror] alert, a bad economy, or a contentious election that we, as a nation, retain our sense of humor.” (Farhi, 2010)
Epistrophe is the repetition of a word or expression at the end of phrases, clauses, or sentences.
Lincoln used this device in the phrase, “of the people, by the people, for the people.”
When used effectively, it adds a harmony and balance to a speech that can verge on the poetic.
USE THREE AS A MAGIC NUMBER. Third rhythm can be created by referring to ideas in groups of three. Experienced speakers know that saying things three times gets their point across in a way that saying it once cannot—not simply because of repetition, but because of the rhythmic effect of the repetition.
Signals
A third specific characteristic of spoken language involves using signals. You may reread an important passage in a book to appreciate its meaning, but your audience hears your message only once—a fact that may make it necessary to signal critical passages in your speech.
The following signals tell your listeners to pay close attention:
This cannot be overemphasized …
Let me get to the heart of the matter …
I want to summarize …
My three biggest concerns are …
Wise speakers draw people back to their message at critical points.
Signals are more necessary in spoken language than in print.
***What is parallel structure? Epistrophe?
USE PARALLEL STRUCTURE. Second, create rhythm by using parallel structure. Parallelism involves the arrangement of a series of words, phrases, or sentences in a similar form. Classically, this is done in two ways: anaphora and epistrophe.
Anaphora is the repetition of the same word or phrase at the beginning of successive clauses or sentences,
I’m so proud to represent American humor, I am proud to be an American, and I am proud to make my home in the “’not real”’ America. And I am most proud that during trying times, like an orange [terror] alert, a bad economy, or a contentious election that we, as a nation, retain our sense of humor.” (Farhi, 2010)
Epistrophe is the repetition of a word or expression at the end of phrases, clauses, or sentences.
Lincoln used this device in the phrase, “of the people, by the people, for the people.”
When used effectively, it adds a harmony and balance to a speech that can verge on the poetic.
***What do “signal” phrases look like?
Signals
A third specific characteristic of spoken language involves using signals. You may reread an important passage in a book to appreciate its meaning, but your audience hears your message only once—a fact that may make it necessary to signal critical passages in your speech.
The following signals tell your listeners to pay close attention:
This cannot be overemphasized …
Let me get to the heart of the matter …
I want to summarize …
My three biggest concerns are …
Wise speakers draw people back to their message at critical points.
Signals are more necessary in spoken language than in print.
What is the role of “three” in parallel structure?
8USE THREE AS A MAGIC NUMBER. Third rhythm can be created by referring to ideas in groups of three. Experienced speakers know that saying things three times gets their point across in a way that saying it once cannot—not simply because of repetition, but because of the rhythmic effect of the repetition.
What guidelines does the book offer for language and style?
Guidelines for Language and Style
strive to be precise, clear, and understandable, keep in mind the difference between denotative and connotative definitions.
Denotative A dictionary provides the literal, objective, definition of the word.
Connotation is the meaning we ascribe to words as framed by our personal experiences.
Whether the audience favors or disfavors your view, ensure they understand what you mean and what you believe to be the facts that support your ideas.
Language and style: What’s the difference between the connotative and denotative definitions of words?
Denotative A dictionary provides the literal, objective, definition of the word.
Connotation is the meaning we ascribe to words as framed by our personal experiences.
How does imagery engage listeners?
Imagery involves creating a vivid description through the use of one or more of our five senses.
Metaphors
state that something is something else. Through metaphors we can understand and experience one idea in terms of another. During his inaugural address, President Bill Clinton said, “Our democracy must not only be the envy of the world but also the engine of our own renewal.” Metaphors create “idea marriages” that bring new insights to listeners.
(2) Similes
create images as they compare the characteristics of two different things using the words “like” or “as.” Here are two examples. “Speed reading Charlie Sheen’s autobiography would be like a trip through a sewer in a glass-bottom boat.” “.
***What’s the difference between active and passive voice? Can you provide examples?
A direct speaking style involves the use of the active rather than passive voice as often as possible or preferable. In addition to using fewer words, the active voice is more direct, easier to follow, and more vigorous.
passive voice has the ability to create a shift in the tone of your message and the moods in your audience.
Passive voice is also used when we want the importance of the subject to be deemphasized or omitted.
To create rhythm or alter emphasis, we sometimes elect to use the passive over the active voice.
What are figures of speech?
Figures of speech connect sentences by emphasizing the relationship among ideas and repeating key sounds to establish a pleasing rhythm..
***What is antithesis, asyndeton, and personification?
Antithesis is the use of contrast, within a parallel grammatical structure, to make a rhetorical point. Jesse Jackson told an audience of young African Americans: “We cannot be what we ought to be if we push dope in our veins, rather than hope in our brains” Antithesis is powerful because it is interesting; it is the analogy turned on its head to reveal insights by the pairing of two opposite things.
Asyndeton is the deliberate omission of conjunctions between a series of related clauses. Saying “I came, I saw, I conquered” rather than “I came, then I saw, and finally I conquered” is a good choice and excellent use of this figure of speech.
Personification is investing human qualities in abstractions or inanimate objects either through metaphor, simile, or analogy. General Douglas MacArthur, addressing West Point cadets confessed: “In my dreams I hear again the crash of guns, the rattle of musketry, the strange, mournful mutter of the battlefield.” The general personifies the inanimate battlefield by ascribing to it human mournful mutters. This personification creates a much stronger emotional appeal..
How can humor be used effectively in a speech?
Nothing brings you closer to your audience than well-placed humor. Humor reveals your human side. It relaxes listeners and makes them respond positively.
accomplishes two things.
First, when appropriate humor is used in informative speaking, the humor enhances the speaker’s image by improving the audience’s perception of the speaker’s character
Second, humor can make a speech more memorable over a longer time.
Jokes at one’s own expense can be effective but telling a joke at the expense of others is in poor taste.
Racial, ethnic, or sexist jokes are rarely acceptable, nor are jokes that poke fun at the personal characteristics of others.
Understated Anecdotes Can Be Effective
humor comes from the recognition that the speaker knows—and shares—the foibles of the audience.
Find Humor in Your Own Experiences
If you decide to use someone else’s material, you have the ethical responsibility to give the source credit. You might start with, “As Jerry Seinfeld would say …”.
Avoid Being Not Funny
when the humor is distasteful to the audience or highly inappropriate, a speaker may find no one is laughing.
As a beginning public speaker, we urge you to err on the side of caution. It is better to avoid humor than to fail at it. While most humor is risky, there are certain things you can be fairly sure your audience will find funny. Stick with those, and try riskier humor as you gain confidence and experience. You might also check with a friend or classmate if you have any question about the humor of a line or story.
***What 5 language pitfalls does the text identify?
5 Language Pitfalls to avoid.
Long and Unnecessary Words
Using long and unnecessary words violates the first principle of language usage, which is to be simple and concrete.
The best speakers realize that attempting to impress an audience by using four- or five-syllable words usually backfires. We prefer “row, row, row your boat” to “maneuver, maneuver, maneuver your craft” most days of the week.
when people are forced to listen to strings of unnecessary words, they may find comprehension difficult.
Using Euphemisms: Language That Masks or Muddles
be clear and provide something meaningful for your audience. Avoid sentences that lack content, mask meaning, or include euphemisms because they can do damage to your credibility.
Using a euphemism involves substituting a mild, vague, or indirect word or phrase for a more harsh, blunt, or inciting, yet more accurate, word or phrase. An effective speaker avoids using language that is unclear, makes an audience uncomfortable, or confuses the listeners. Using euphemisms is not recommended.
Jargon, Slang, and Profanity
Jargon is the host of technical terms used by special groups.
Slang is the use of informal words and expressions that are not considered standard in the speaker’s language.
Slang helps individuals identify with their peers, but it is not often appropriate within the formal speaking environment.
Profanity is seldom appropriate within the public speaking context. Listeners almost always expect a degree of decorum in a formal speech, requiring that certain language be avoided.
Exaggeration and Clichés
Exaggerations are statements made to impress at the expense of accuracy. Obvious exaggerations diminish your credibility as a speaker.
Clichés, “enemies of lively speech.”
Clichés can lull your listeners into a state of boredom because they suggest that both your vocabulary and imagination are limited.
put our noses to the grindstone.
kept our eyes on the prize.
Phrases That Communicate Uncertainty
Speakers should avoid phrases that communicate uncertainty. Language can communicate a sense of mastery of your subject or it can communicate uncertainty. Compare the following paragraphs:
VERSION 1:Sometimes I think that too many students choose a career solely on the basis of how much they are likely to earn. It seems to me, they forget that they also have to somewhat enjoy what they are probably going to spend the rest of their work lives doing, in my estimation.
VERSION 2:Too many students choose a career based solely on how much they would earn. They forget that enjoying what they spend the rest of their work lives doing is important, too.
What are euphemism, jargon, and slang?
8Using a euphemism involves substituting a mild, vague, or indirect word or phrase for a more harsh, blunt, or inciting, yet more accurate, word or phrase. An effective speaker avoids using language that is unclear, makes an audience uncomfortable, or confuses the listeners. Using euphemisms is not recommended.
Jargon, Slang, and Profanity
Jargon is the host of technical terms used by special groups.
Slang is the use of informal words and expressions that are not considered standard in the speaker’s language.
Slang helps individuals identify with their peers, but it is not often appropriate within the formal speaking environment.
Profanity is seldom appropriate within the public speaking context. Listeners almost always expect a degree of decorum in a formal speech, requiring that certain language be avoided.
***What are Exaggeration and clichés?
8Exaggerations are statements made to impress at the expense of accuracy. Obvious exaggerations diminish your credibility as a speaker.
Clichés, “enemies of lively speech.”
Clichés can lull your listeners into a state of boredom because they suggest that both your vocabulary and imagination are limited.
put our noses to the grindstone.
kept our eyes on the prize.
What kinds of phrases communicate uncertainty? How can they be improved?
8Phrases That Communicate Uncertainty
Speakers should avoid phrases that communicate uncertainty. Language can communicate a sense of mastery of your subject or it can communicate uncertainty. Compare the following paragraphs:
VERSION 1:Sometimes I think that too many students choose a career solely on the basis of how much they are likely to earn. It seems to me, they forget that they also have to somewhat enjoy what they are probably going to spend the rest of their work lives doing, in my estimation.
VERSION 2:Too many students choose a career based solely on how much they would earn. They forget that enjoying what they spend the rest of their work lives doing is important, too.
***Ch. 9: What is the difference between impromptu, extemporaneous, and manuscript speaking? Which is required in COM 115?
9.4 methods to deliver a speech.
Considering your audience, purpose, and the occasion will help you choose the most appropriate and effective delivery method.
arranged in order of time commitment, with impromptu requiring the least and memorized the most advance preparation.
Impromptu Speaking
involves little to no preparation time.
With no opportunity to prepare, you must rely on what you know.
you are not expected to make a polished,
you are expected to deliver your remarks in a clear, cogent manner. Following are several suggestions to help you create an effective impromptu speech.
BEGIN WITH THE AUDIENCE AND OCCASION.
Remind your listeners of the occasion or purpose of the meeting.
You may want to refer to something a previous speaker said, whether you agree or disagree. This gives you a beginning point, and a brief moment to think about and organize your comments.
KEEP IT SIMPLE.
Every speech needs an introduction, body, and conclusion.
Create a brief introduction that is tied to the other parts of speech.
The body of your speech should include one or two main points and each point should be explained and supported.
BE COLORFUL.
Be as concrete as possible
stay focused on your central idea
provide listeners with something colorful and memorable too, if possible.
BE UNAPOLOGETICALLY FOCUSED.
Instead of jumping from point to point vaguely, focus on your specific purpose.
When you complete the mission of your speech, turn the platform over to another speaker.
Never apologize. Your audience is already aware it is an impromptu moment; apologizing for the informality of your address is unnecessary.
be bold, be brief, and be gone!
Extemporaneous Speaking
method of delivery that involves using carefully prepared notes to guide the presentation
Speakers can maintain a personal connection with their listeners and respond to their feedback.
your word choice is fresh.
you practice your speech so that key words or phrases remain with you, you choose your exact words as you are delivering your speech.
spontaneous, conversational tone that puts you and your audience at ease.
Consider the following guidelines as you prepare your extemporaneous speech:
PREPARE CAREFULLY.
Don’t treat this as an impromptu speech!
Choose your purpose, develop your core idea, research your topic, organize your ideas, and select the language and presentation style that are most appropriate for your audience.
CRAFT FULL CONTENT AND KEY-WORD OUTLINES.
Develop an outline containing main points and subpoints, then create a key-word outline that can be transferred to index cards of the appropriate size.
it represents the major ideas of your speech and supporting material.
The key-word outline is brief enough to be transferred to note cards.
Note cards, which can be held or placed on a lectern, should be large enough to accommodate information from your key-word outline, yet small enough to be unobtrusive.
You may include delivery cues, such as using “//” to symbolize where you should pause and look up if you feel cues about eye contact would be helpful.
CAPTURE AND CITE DETAILED INFORMATION ON NOTE CARDS.
Facts, figures, and quotations may be written on note cards for easy reference.
It is a good idea to be sure you say these things with precision. Rather than take the chance of misquoting people or facts, it may help to have such information written on your cards.
Remember to include and orally cite the source for these items.
WRITE LEGIBLY.
Your notes are useless if you cannot read them, so be sure the words are large enough and consider highlighting critical ideas.
remember that your visual aids can serve as prompts to some extent too, reducing the number of words on your cards.
YOUR NOTES ARE PROMPTS, NOT A SCRIPT.
Notes enable you to keep the speech you rehearsed in mind without committing every word to memory.
maintain eye contact with your listeners. You can glance around the room, looking occasionally at your note cards, without giving anyone the impression that you are reading your speech. But this is possible only when you have a few key words on your cards. The more words on your note cards, the longer you must look at them to find the right key words, and the less effective your delivery becomes. With extemporaneous speaker notes, less is more.
Using a Manuscript
involves writing your speech out word for word and then reading it.
may be necessary in formal occasions when the speech is distributed beforehand, if it is to be archived, translated, or printed after it is given.
minimizes the temptation to add remarks during the speech but also loses the benefit of flexibility.
4 performance guidelines.
PAY SPECIAL ATTENTION TO PREPARING THE WRITTEN TEXT.
Avoid using a handwritten manuscript.
Choose a large font to see without squinting
have the lines widely spaced. Use larger margins and number your pages.
Print the script on one side of the paper only so that you can slide, rather than flip, the pages as you work your way through the message.
You will notice that podiums and lecterns have a ridge nearest you that allows you to place loose papers on a stack on the right side and then slide sheets one by one to the left side. If done right, your audience will never even see your script.
PRACTICE.
Practice enough that you are not dependent on the manuscript, and you do not need to look down for each sentence.
Try practicing your speech first in sections—introduction, then body, then conclusion. You might find one or more parts of your speech needs more work, or more delivery preparation.
Record your rehearsal yourself to ensure you are making eye contact and sound natural.
EXPRESS YOURSELF NATURALLY AND COMMUNICATE YOUR PERSONALITY.
Think of the speaking occasion as a way to converse with your audience.
You want them to have a peek into your personality.
Keep a somewhat conversational tone with your audience.
Think about what you want to emphasize and vary the pitch of your voice to avoid being monotone.
Pronounce words as you would in normal speech and be conscious of speaking too quickly or too slowly.
Memorization
Memorization enables you to write the exact words you will speak without being forced to read them.
It makes it easier to establish eye contact with your audience and deliver your speech skillfully.
Memorization begins with a carefully crafted manuscript but requires much more time to get right.
Memorization is risky for a public speaker.
5 performance guidelines.
1 START SOON.
Make sure you have ample time to work on the memorization aspect of your delivery.
2 MEMORIZE SMALL SECTIONS OF YOUR SPEECH AT A TIME.
Do not allow yourself to become overwhelmed with the task.
Memorizing small sections of your speech minimizes the chance that you will forget your speech during the delivery.
some people can memorize speeches more easily than others, so work at your own pace and do not compare yourself to others.
3 PRACTICE USING PAUSES, EMPHASIS, AND VOCAL VARIETY.
4 USE EYE CONTACT EFFECTIVELY.
Avoid looking like you are trying to remember the speech.
5 BE CALM IF YOU FORGET.
If you lose your place, pause and silently review what you just covered.
No need to laugh or curse
do not apologize.
***What guidelines does the book offer for extemporaneous form of speaking?
9.Extemporaneous Speaking
method of delivery that involves using carefully prepared notes to guide the presentation
Speakers can maintain a personal connection with their listeners and respond to their feedback.
your word choice is fresh.
you practice your speech so that key words or phrases remain with you, you choose your exact words as you are delivering your speech.
spontaneous, conversational tone that puts you and your audience at ease.
Consider the following guidelines as you prepare your extemporaneous speech:
PREPARE CAREFULLY.
Don’t treat this as an impromptu speech!
Choose your purpose, develop your core idea, research your topic, organize your ideas, and select the language and presentation style that are most appropriate for your audience.
CRAFT FULL CONTENT AND KEY-WORD OUTLINES.
Develop an outline containing main points and subpoints, then create a key-word outline that can be transferred to index cards of the appropriate size.
it represents the major ideas of your speech and supporting material.
The key-word outline is brief enough to be transferred to note cards.
Note cards, which can be held or placed on a lectern, should be large enough to accommodate information from your key-word outline, yet small enough to be unobtrusive.
You may include delivery cues, such as using “//” to symbolize where you should pause and look up if you feel cues about eye contact would be helpful.
CAPTURE AND CITE DETAILED INFORMATION ON NOTE CARDS.
Facts, figures, and quotations may be written on note cards for easy reference.
It is a good idea to be sure you say these things with precision. Rather than take the chance of misquoting people or facts, it may help to have such information written on your cards.
Remember to include and orally cite the source for these items.
WRITE LEGIBLY.
Your notes are useless if you cannot read them, so be sure the words are large enough and consider highlighting critical ideas.
remember that your visual aids can serve as prompts to some extent too, reducing the number of words on your cards.
YOUR NOTES ARE PROMPTS, NOT A SCRIPT.
Notes enable you to keep the speech you rehearsed in mind without committing every word to memory.
maintain eye contact with your listeners. You can glance around the room, looking occasionally at your note cards, without giving anyone the impression that you are reading your speech. But this is possible only when you have a few key words on your cards. The more words on your note cards, the longer you must look at them to find the right key words, and the less effective your delivery becomes. With extemporaneous speaker notes, less is more.
What is the difference between articulation and pronunciation?
9Articulation
A person who articulates well is someone who speaks clearly and intelligibly.
Articulation refers to the production of sound and how precisely we form our words.
The more formal the situation, the more precise our articulation needs to be.
The more casual the situation, the more likely we are to relax our speech. In front of most audiences, sloppy or careless pronunciation patterns should be avoided.
Pronunciation
related to articulation
involves saying a word correctly as opposed to how you form sounds.
Mispronunciations may hurt your credibility because listeners may perceive you to be less educated or less culturally aware.
Just like learning a foreign language, it may take several efforts to pronounce a word correctly.
What advice does the book have for the volume of your speaking?
9Volume
how forcefully contraction of the diaphragm propels air through the trachea and across the vocal folds.
The more forcefully you use abdominal muscles to exhale, the greater the force of the air, and the louder your voice.
Consider the following suggestions when working on your volume.
PROJECTION. Shouting involves forcing the voice from the vocal folds, which is irritating to the folds, instead of projecting the sound from the abdominal area.
Straining your voice will only make you hoarse.
Instead, work on your posture and breathing from the diaphragm.
some cultures value a lower volume. Speakers need to understand possible cultural differences.
LOOK UP. Do not talk to the podium.
the audience will not be able to hear.
Look up, and speak to your audience
if you turn to look at your PowerPoint, you will not be heard as well. Avoid giving your speech to the wall behind you.
USE VOLUME TO ADD VARIETY.
Increasing volume at certain times during your speech draws attention to your point, and having variety, in general, maintains interest.
ADAPT.
Adapt your volume to the size of the room as well as to distractions that may be occurring within the room or outside the room.
If you use a microphone, conduct a volume check before the speech, or if that’s not possible, check your volume as you begin your speech.
A microphone is not necessary in a small room but may be vital in a larger room.
What is “rate” in public speaking? What should your rate be? Why should you vary your rate?
9Americans’ rate of speech is between 120 and 160 words per minute.
Under the pressure of giving a speech, you may find yourself speeding up or slowing down.
2 goals to strive for:
CHOOSE AN APPROPRIATE RATE.
Knowing your audience also influences the rate of your speech.
Your rate should be consistent with the ideas being expressed.
VARY YOUR RATE OF SPEECH.
By changing your rate of speech, you can express different thoughts and feelings.
You may want to speak slowly to emphasize an important point or to communicate a serious or somber mood.
A faster pace is appropriate to express surprise, happiness, or fear.
variety in rate is easier on the ears.
What is your voice’s pitch? Why is it important to vary pitch and experiment with your voice’s range?
9refers to your vocal range. Your voice produces a high or low pitch by the tightening and loosening of your vocal folds.
The range of most people’s voices is less than two octaves.
VARY YOUR PITCH.
Variety adds interest to your presentation.
Avoid a monotone.
When you do not vary the pitch of your voice, you risk putting your listeners to sleep.
USE YOUR VOICE POTENTIAL.
Take advantage of the fact that our voices have incredible range.
Why are pauses important in public speaking? What purposes do they serve?
9.Pauses add color, expression, and feeling to a speech.
should be used deliberately to achieve a desired effect.
often misused or absent.
Some speakers run thoughts together until they run out of breath.
Others pause every three or four words in a kind of nervous verbal chop.
When done well, pauses serve multiple purposes.
First, they communicate self-confidence.
Second, they help listeners digest what you are saying and anticipate what you will say next.
Third, a significant pause helps you move from one topic to the next without actually telling your listeners what you are doing.
Fourth, a pause signals pay attention. This is especially true for long pauses lasting two or three seconds.
What advice does the book have for using pauses effectively?
9.TIE YOUR PAUSES TO VERBAL PHRASING. a unit you speak in one breath to express a single idea.
Each pause tells your listeners you are moving from one thought to the next.
Pausing when you introduce a new idea or term gives your listeners time to absorb what you are saying.
USE PAUSES TO CHANGE THE PACE AND ADD VERBAL VARIETY
Pauses can be an effective tool speakers use to keep attention or to draw attention to a particular thought or emotion.
Pause just before you speed up or pause just before you slow down.
indicates to the audience that something is going to happen.
EXTEND PAUSES WHEN DISPLAYING A VISUAL.
enables your audience to read the information on the visual without missing your next thought.
It is important to pause after the display, not before it. Try pausing for two or three seconds.
What is “emphasis” in public speaking?
9used to draw attention to a specific word or phrase.
It involves stressing certain words or phrases.
add weight to what you say, and make a particular word or phrase more noticeable or prominent.
An emotion can be highlighted through the use of emphasis.
What are nonfluencies? Can you give examples? How can they be reduced?
9Nonfluencies, are meaningless words and sounds we make that interrupt the flow of our speech.
include “like,” “you know,” “uh,” “um,” “so,” and “okay.”
These interrupt the flow of speech and may also distract or annoy the audience.
***2 central themes throughout this discussion of vocal delivery.
practice so it flows smoothly.
Practice pronouncing unfamiliar words so they come easily to you when you give your speech.
vocal variety.
Vary pitch, rate, and volume to keep the audience’s attention, create interest in your speech, and stress key words, phrases, and thoughts..
What are gestures? What guidelines does the book offer for using gestures effectively? What actions inhibit gesturing properly?
9Gestures involve using your arms and hands to illustrate, emphasize, or provide a visual experience that accompanies your thoughts.
Gestures have a positive effect on breathing, helping you relax the muscles that affect the quality of the voice.
3 guidelines as you practice using gestures.
USE NATURAL GESTURES.
reinforce both the ideas in the message and your own personality.
Stand straight, with your arms bent at the waist and your hands relaxed, so you are ready to gesture.
GESTURE PURPOSEFULLY.
should not appear random
should be meaningful and enhance your message.
GESTURE APPROPRIATELY.
should be timely.
should make sense within the context of your message. If you are speaking before a large audience, gestures are bigger and, generally, more dramatic.Page 297
Various actions may communicate uncertainty, nervousness, and may hurt your delivery.
should not draw attention to themselves and away from your ideas.
What guidelines and problems does the book discuss in relationship to the use of notecards?
9If you work with note cards, it is important to use them effectively.
consider the following:
View your note cards as an extension of your arm, gesturing as you would without the note cards.
Cards should fit into your hand comfortably.
Generally, 4”x6” cards are easier to work with than 3”x5” cards.
Avoid distracting note cards.
Number your note cards. If you drop them, you can get them back in order quickly.
Check their sequence before speaking.
What guidelines does the book offer for physical movement? For facial expressions? Why is eye contact important?
93 guidelines.
1 MOVE NATURALLY. Relax and use movement reasonably. Do not pace back and forth like a caged lion or make small darting movements that return you to the safety of the lectern.
2 TIE YOUR MOVEMENTS TO YOUR USE OF VISUAL AIDS. Walk over to the visual as you are presenting it and point to its relevant parts. Walk back to the lectern when finished. Aim for fluid movement.
3 BE PREPARED. Be prepared to adapt to your instructor’s rules and the speaking environment.Remember that movement is a way to connect with the audience, get them involved, and keep their attention.
e) Facial Expressions
Our face not only provides information about our identity, age, and gender,
primary source of emotions. .
MATCH FACIAL EXPRESSIONS WITH YOUR TONE. Your facial expression, however, should match the tone or emotion present in your speech.
SMILE, WHEN APPROPRIATE. Listeners also feel engaged when speakers smile.
f) Eye Contact
No other aspect of nonverbal behavior is as important as eye contact, which is the connection you form with listeners through your gaze
3 performance guidelines
1 DISTRIBUTE YOUR GAZE EVENLY.
sustained eye contact with different members in the audience.
Avoid darting your eyes around or sweeping the room with your eyes. Instead, maintain eye contact with a single person for a single thought.
It may help to think of your audience as divided into several physical sectors.
Focus on a person in each sector, rotating your gaze among the people and the sectors as you speak.
2 GLANCE ONLY BRIEFLY AND OCCASIONALLY AT YOUR NOTES.
3 DO NOT LOOK JUST ABOVE THE HEADS OF YOUR LISTENERS..
What guidelines does the book offer for using eye contact well?
9DISTRIBUTE YOUR GAZE EVENLY.
sustained eye contact with different members in the audience.
Avoid darting your eyes around or sweeping the room with your eyes. Instead, maintain eye contact with a single person for a single thought.
It may help to think of your audience as divided into several physical sectors.
Focus on a person in each sector, rotating your gaze among the people and the sectors as you speak.
2 GLANCE ONLY BRIEFLY AND OCCASIONALLY AT YOUR NOTES.
3 DO NOT LOOK JUST ABOVE THE HEADS OF YOUR LISTENERS..
What role does appearance play in public speaking?
9 the bottom line is, do nothing to distract from the message.
What are the three types of audiences? How does each type of audience influence the speaker’s approach?
1) supportive audience, the audience that agrees with you, poses the least difficulty. This type of audience is friendly; its members like you, and they are interested in hearing what you have to say.
Your main objective is to reinforce what they already accept.strengthen their resolve encourage behavioral change keep them enthused about your point of view or action plan. The audience that agrees with you will welcome new information, but does not need a re-hashing of information already known and accepted.
2) opposed audience, the speaker runs the risk of having members in the audience who may be hostile.
This audience does not agree with you, it is not friendly or sympathetic, and most likely, will search for flaws in your argument. Your objective in this case is to get a fair hearing. A persuasive speaker facing a group that does not agree with him/her needs to set reasonable goals. Also, developing arguments carefully by using fair and respected evidence may help persuade an audience that disagrees with you.One thing to consider when facing an audience opposed to you is the nature of their opposition. Is it to you? Your cause? Seeking common ground is a good strategy when people do not agree with you. Avoid needless confrontation.
3) uncommitted audience can be difficult because you don’t know whether they are uninformed, indifferent, or are adamantly neutral. This audience is neither friendly nor hostile, but most likely, they are not sympathetic.
The uninformed audience is the easiest to persuade, because they need information
The indifferent audience member doesn’t really care about the issue or topic.
What is the background behind Maslow’s hierarchy of needs? What are the 5 levels of needs identified by the hierarchy? Can you offer examples of each?
Psychologist Abraham Maslow (1943) classified human needs according to the hierarchy pictured in Figure 12.1. our most basic needs—those at the foundation of the hierarchy—must be satisfied before we can consider those on the next levels.
1) PHYSIOLOGICAL NEEDS.
the foundation of the hierarchy are our biological needs for food, water, oxygen, procreation, and rest.
2) SAFETY NEEDS.
need for security, freedom from fear and attack, a home that offers tranquility and comfort, and a means of earning a living.
3) BELONGINGNESS AND LOVE NEEDS.
our drive for affiliation, friendship, and love.
When appealing to the need for social belonging,.
4) ESTEEM NEEDS.
need to be seen as worthy and competent and to have the respect of others.
An effective approach would be to praise community members h
5) SELF-ACTUALIZATION NEEDS.
People who reach the top of the hierarchy seek to fulfill their highest potential through personal growth, creativity, self-awareness and knowledge, social responsibility, and responsiveness to challenge.
Your appeal to your audience’s sense of social responsibility would stress.
***What are the components of ethos?
COMPETENCE. In many cases, your audience will decide your message’s value based on perceived speaker competence.
first ask themselves whether you have the background to speak.
Second, your audience will consider whether the content of your speech has firm support.
Finally, audiences will determine whether you communicate confidence and control of your subject matter through your delivery.
TRUSTWORTHINESS.
research has shown that the trustworthy communicator is more influential than the untrustworthy one, regardless of his/her level of expertise
perceptions of trustworthiness are based largely on
your perceived respect for them
your ethical standards
your ability to establish common ground.
Audiences gauge a speaker’s respect for them by analyzing the actions a speaker has taken before the speech.
If a group is listening to a political candidate running for office in their community, they will have more respect for someone who has demonstrated concern for their community through past actions.
Trustworthiness is also influenced by the audience’s perception of your ethical standards.
Telling the truth is paramount for the persuasive speaker.
If your message is biased and you make little attempt to be fair or to concede the strength of your opponent’s point of view, your listeners may question your integrity.
Your credibility and your ability to persuade increase if you convince your audience that you share “common ground.”
DYNAMISM.
Your ability to persuade is influenced by the audience’s perception of you as a dynamic spokesperson.
Dynamic speakers tend to be vibrant, confident, vigorous, attractive, and skilled in public speaking.
Your listeners will make critical decisions about how dynamic you are as they form a first impression.
This impression will be reinforced or altered as they listen for an energetic style that communicates commitment to your point of view, and for ideas that build on one another in a convincing, logical way.
Dynamic public speakers tend to be well-practiced presenters.
Pathos. How do emotional appeals assist in persuasion?
12Aristotle argued that pathos, which is the “consideration of the emotions of people in the audience” is an integral part of persuasion
The emotions are those things through which, by undergoing change, people come to differ in their judgments and which are accompanied by pain and pleasure, for example, anger, pity, fear, and other such things and their opposites”
Emotional appeals have the power to elicit happiness, joy, pride, patriotism, fear, hate, anger, guilt, despair, hope, hopelessness, bitterness, and other feelings.
***What are the main parts of an argument (logos)? Can you provide or recognize examples?
12Anatomy of an Argument: Claim, Data, Warrant
Logical, critical thinking increases your ability to assess, analyze, and advocate ideas. Stephen Toulmin , a British philosopher, developed a model of practical reasoning that consists of three basic elements: claim, data, and warrant. To construct a sound, reasonable argument, you need to use three essential parts:
The claim is a statement or contention the audience is urged to accept. The claim answers the question, “So what is your point?
Example: It’s your turn to do the dishes; I did them last time.
The data are evidence in support of an idea you advocate. Data provide the answer to “So what is your proof?” or “Why?”
Example: It looks like rain. Dark clouds are forming.
The warrant is an inference that links the evidence with the claim.
It answers the question, “Why does that data mean your claim is true?”
Example: Augie is running a fever. I bet he has an ear infection.
To put the three elements of an argument together, let’s consider another example. At a restaurant, you take a bite of a steak sandwich and say,
Claim: “This is the worst sandwich I have ever tried.” With this announcement you are making a claim that you infer from tasting the meat.
The evidence (data) is the food before you.
The warrant is the link between data and claim and is the inference, which may be an unstated belief that the food is spoiled, old, or poorly prepared, and will taste bad..
***What is the difference between inductive and deductive reasoning? Can you provide or recognize examples?
12Inductive Reasoning
Through inductive reasoning, we generalize from specific examples to draw conclusions from what we observe.
Inductive reasoning moves us from the specific to the general in an orderly, logical fashion.
The inference step in the argument holds that what is true of specific cases can be generalized to other cases of the same class, or of the class as a whole.
Because you are only looking at a sample of all the possible cases, you must persuade your audience to accept a conclusion that is probable, or maybe even just possible.
The three most common strategies for inductive reasoning involve analogy, cause, and sign.
Deductive Reasoning drawing conclusions based on the connections between statements that serve as premises.
Rather than introducing new facts, deductions enable us to rearrange the facts we already know, putting them in a form that will make our point.
Deductive reasoning is the basis of police work and scientific research, enabling investigators to draw relationships between seemingly unrelated pieces of information.
At the heart of deductive reasoning is the syllogism, a pattern of reasoning involving a major premise, a minor premise, and a conclusion. When deductive reasoning is explicitly stated as a complete syllogism, it leads us down an inescapable logical path. The interrelationships in a syllogism can be established in a series of deductive steps:
STEP 1: Define the relationship between two terms.
Major premise: Plagiarism is a form of ethical abuse.
STEP 2: Define a condition or special characteristic of one of the terms.
Minor premise: Plagiarism involves using the words of another without quotations or footnotes as well as improper footnoting.
STEP 3: Show how a conclusion about the other term necessarily follows.
Conclusion: Students who use the words of another, but fail to use quotations or footnotes to indicate this or who intentionally use incorrect footnotes, are guilty of an ethical abuse.
Your ability to convince your listeners depends on their acceptance of your original premises and the conclusion you draw from them. The burden of proof rests with your evidence.
You must convince listeners through the strength of your supporting material to accept your premises and, by extension, your conclusion.
What is reasoning by analogy, reasoning from cause, and reasoning from sign?
12Reasoning by Analogy
Analogies establish common links between similar and not-so-similar concepts.
They are effective tools of persuasion when your audience is convinced that the characteristics of one case are similar enough to the characteristics of the second case that your argument about the first also applies to the second.
figurative analogy draws a comparison between things that are distinctly different, such as “Eating fresh marshmallows is like floating on a cloud.”
Figurative analogies can be used to persuade, but they must be supported with relevant facts, statistics, and testimony that link the dissimilar concepts you are comparing.
literal analogy compares things with similar characteristics and, therefore, requires less explanatory support. One speaker compared the addictive power of tobacco products, especially cigarettes, with the power of alcoholic beverages consumed on a regular basis.
His line of reasoning was that both are consumed for pleasure, relaxation, and often as relief for stress. While his use of logical argument was obvious, the listener ultimately assesses whether or not these two things—alcohol and tobacco—are sufficiently similar.
Your analogy should meet the following characteristics: There are significant points of similarity. Similarities are tied to critical points of the comparison. Differences need to be relatively small. You have a better chance of convincing people if you can point to other successful cases
Reasoning from Cause
inference that an event of one kind contributes to or brings about an event of another kind.
causal reasoning focuses on the cause-and-effect relationship between ideas.
CAUSE: An inaccurate and low census count of the homeless in Detroit
EFFECT: Fewer federal dollars will be sent to Detroit to aid the homeless
When used correctly, causal reasoning can be an effective persuasive tool.
You must be sure that the cause-and-effect relationship is sound enough to stand up to scrutiny and criticism.
To be valid, your reasoning should exhibit the following characteristics:
The cause and effect you describe should be connected.
The cause should be acting alone.
The effect should not be the effect of another cause.The claim and evidence must be accurate
To be effective, causal reasoning should never overstate. By using phrases like “This is one of several causes” or “The evidence suggests there is a cause-and-effect link,” you are giving your audience a reasonable picture of a complex situation.
Reasoning from Sign The inference step is that the presence of an attribute can be taken as the presence of some larger condition or situation of which the attribute is a part.
As you step outside in the early morning to begin jogging, the gray clouds and moist air can be interpreted as signs that the weather conditions are likely to result in a rainy day. The public speaker who reasons from sign must do so with caution.
signs are easy to misinterpret.
For example, saying, “Where there’s fire, there’s smoke” is a strong sign of a relationship, but saying, “Where there’s smoke, there’s fire,” is not so strong.
Responsible speaker must carefully test an argument before using it to persuade an audience.
***What is a syllogism, and what are its parts?
12At the heart of deductive reasoning is the syllogism, a pattern of reasoning involving a major premise, a minor premise, and a conclusion. When deductive reasoning is explicitly stated as a complete syllogism, it leads us down an inescapable logical path. The interrelationships in a syllogism can be established in a series of deductive steps:
STEP 1: Define the relationship between two terms.
Major premise: Plagiarism is a form of ethical abuse.
STEP 2: Define a condition or special characteristic of one of the terms.
Minor premise: Plagiarism involves using the words of another without quotations or footnotes as well as improper footnoting.
STEP 3: Show how a conclusion about the other term necessarily follows.
Conclusion: Students who use the words of another, but fail to use quotations or footnotes to indicate this or who intentionally use incorrect footnotes, are guilty of an ethical abuse.
Your ability to convince your listeners depends on their acceptance of your original premises and the conclusion you draw from them. The burden of proof rests with your evidence.
You must convince listeners through the strength of your supporting material to accept your premises and, by extension, your conclusion.
Could you recognize or create a syllogism?
12The interrelationships in a syllogism can be established in a series of deductive steps:
STEP 1: Define the relationship between two terms.
Major premise: Plagiarism is a form of ethical abuse.
STEP 2: Define a condition or special characteristic of one of the terms.
Minor premise: Plagiarism involves using the words of another without quotations or footnotes as well as improper footnoting.
STEP 3: Show how a conclusion about the other term necessarily follows.
Conclusion: Students who use the words of another, but fail to use quotations or footnotes to indicate this or who intentionally use incorrect footnotes, are guilty of an ethical abuse.
Your ability to convince your listeners depends on their acceptance of your original premises and the conclusion you draw from them. The burden of proof rests with your evidence.
You must convince listeners through the strength of your supporting material to accept your premises and, by extension, your conclusion.
What is mythos, and what makes it powerful? What are fallacies?
12Within the last several decades, scholars have begun to recognize the power of stories, folklore, anecdotes, legends, and myths to persuade
Mythos is the term given when content supports a claim by reminding an audience how the claim is consistent with cultural identity.
The strength of the mythos depends on how accurately it ties into preexisting attitudes, values, histories, norms, and behaviors for a cultural, national, familial, or other collective.
boy who cried wolf.
When speakers use mythos effectively, they create common ground with their listeners. If you were addressing an American audience and chided them to not listening to “that little boy who cried wolf” when refuting claims of an impending economic crisis, your audience will likely be receptive to your position because of the common ground you invoked through their understanding of the myth.
What six fallacies does the book discuss? Could you offer examples of each?
12Attacking the person. Also known as ad hominem (“to the man”), this occurs when a speaker attacks the person rather than the substance of the person’s argument. A personal attack is often a cover-up for lack of evidence or solid reasoning.
politicians have been elected based on attacks on their opponents rather than refuting stances on issues.
RED HERRING. A red herring occurs when a speaker attempts to divert the attention of the audience from the matter at hand. Going off on a tangent, changing the focus of the argument, engaging in personal attacks, or appealing to popular prejudice
HASTY GENERALIZATION. A hasty generalization is a fallacy based on quantity of data. A faulty argument occurs because the sample chosen is too small or is in some way not representative.
Stereotypes about people are common examples of this fallacy.
FALSE CAUSE. A false cause is also known as post hoc ergo propter hoc (“after this, therefore, because of this”). The speaker using this fallacy points out that because one event happened before another event, the first event caused the second event.
FALSE ANALOGY. A false analogy compares two things that are not really comparable.
“You’re comparing apples and oranges,”
SLIPPERY SLOPE. A speaker using this fallacy claims that if we take even one step onto the slippery slope, we will end up sliding all the way to the bottom; that we can’t stop.
In other words, there will be a chain reaction that will end in some dire consequence.
***What are the two possible goals of persuasion?
The two overall goals of persuasion are to address attitudes and to move an audience to action.
***What are the potential persuasive aims of a speech (and how does this differ from the goals)?
12Persuasive Aims Determining your persuasive goal is a critical first step. Next, you must define the narrower persuasive aim or the type and direction of the change you seek. Four persuasive aims define the nature of your overall persuasive goal.
ADOPTION. When you want your audience to start doing something, your persuasive aim is to urge the audience to adopt a particular idea or plan. As a spokesperson for the American Cancer Society, you may deliver the following message: “I urge every woman over the age of 40 to get a regular mammogram.”
CONTINUANCE. Sometimes your listeners are already doing the thing you want them to do. In this case, your goal is to reinforce this action.
DISCONTINUANCE. You attempt to persuade your listeners to stop doing something you disagree with.
DETERRENCE. In this case, your goal is avoidance. You want to convince your listeners not to start something,
***Persuasive aims: What us the difference between adoption, continuance, discontinuance, and deterrence?
12ADOPTION. When you want your audience to start doing something, your persuasive aim is to urge the audience to adopt a particular idea or plan. As a spokesperson for the American Cancer Society, you may deliver the following message: “I urge every woman over the age of 40 to get a regular mammogram.”
CONTINUANCE. Sometimes your listeners are already doing the thing you want them to do. In this case, your goal is to reinforce this action.
DISCONTINUANCE. You attempt to persuade your listeners to stop doing something you disagree with.
DETERRENCE. In this case, your goal is avoidance. You want to convince your listeners not to start something,
What is the difference between propositions of fact, value, and policy? Could you offer or recognize examples of each?
12PROPOSITION OF FACT.
A proposition of fact suggests the existence of something.
You try to prove or disprove some statement.
you have to convince people to accept your version of the truth.
Here are four examples of facts that would require proof:
Water fluoridation can lead to health problems.
College is not the place for all students.
Hunting is a way to control the deer population.
American corporations are not paying enough in income taxes.
Informative speakers become persuasive speakers when they cross the line from presenting facts to presenting facts within the context of a point of view.
The informative speaker lets listeners decide on a position based on their own analysis of the facts. By contrast, the persuasive speaker draws the conclusion for them.
PROPOSITION OF VALUE.
Values are deep-seated ideals that determine what we consider good or bad, moral or immoral, satisfying or unsatisfying, proper or improper, wise or foolish, valuable or invaluable, and so on.
Persuasive speeches that deal with propositions of value are assertions rooted in judgments based on these ideals. The speaker’s goal is to prove the worth of an evaluative statement, as in the following examples:
It is wrong to criminalize recreational or medicinal use of marijuana.
Violence in professional sports is unjustified.
Plagiarizing to complete an assignment is dishonest. When you use words that can be considered judgments or evaluations, such as those italicized above, you are making a proposition of value.
When designing a persuasive speech based on a proposition of value, it is important to present facts, statistics, or examples to support your points. Also, using expert opinion and testimony will provide credible support.
PROPOSITION OF POLICY.
Propositions of policy propose a course of action. U
Propositions of policy are easily recognizable by their use of “should,” “ought to,” “have to,” or “must”:
Campus safety should be reevaluated by the college administration.
The same general student academic standards ought to apply to student-athletes, too.
Collegiate athletes should be paid.
Animals must not be used for product testing in scientific laboratories.
In a policy speech, speakers convince listeners of both the need for change and what that change should be.
A speaker’s persuasive appeal, in summary, derives from the audience’s sense of the speaker’s credibility as well as from appeals to an audience’s emotion and logic.
***What types of organizational patterns are specific to persuasive speeches?
12
comparative-advantages organizational pattern is useful when the audience already agrees there is a problem that needs a solution.
The problem may not be grave, but it is one that may have several potentially acceptable solutions.
As a speaker using this pattern, you try to convince the audience that your plan is the best.
You place alternative solutions or plans side-by-side and discuss the advantages and disadvantages of each.
To some extent, this organizational pattern can be viewed as a structured process of elimination.For example, Lauren, a high school senior, is trying to decide which college to attend. She has prior approval from her parents to look at both in-state and out-of-state schools.
For example, if you were talking about how to solve the energy crisis, you could compare solar, wind, and nuclear power to convince your audience that one method is superior to the others.
the criteria-satisfaction pattern, you demonstrate how your idea has the features your audience needs.
It is a clear pattern that is useful when you have an audience opposed to your idea.
You can help elicit a “yes” response from your audience through identification of criteria they find acceptable.
You indicate the necessary criteria and show how your solution meets or exceeds the criteria.
Consider a “calendar committee” trying to convince the local school board to change the dates for beginning and ending the school year. The committee might argue that any solution should meet the following criteria:Acceptable to teachers, Acceptable to parents, Cost effective (not have to turn on air conditioning too soon), Enhances education or at least does not interfere with learning environment, Includes appropriate start and ending dates for each term, Balances mandatory and optional vacation and teacher institute dates. Based on these criteria, the committee could present the solution to the school board that meets all these criteria.
With the criteria-solution pattern, it is important that you find criteria your audience will accept.
**What other organizational patterns could be used for a persuasive speech? (see top of p. 422)?
problem–solution pattern, which involves presenting an audience with a problem and then examining one or more likely solutions. For a persuasive speech, the speaker persuades the audience to accept one particular solution.
We also noted the cause-and-effect pattern, which entails arranging main points into causes and effects. The persuasive speaker constructs a case for the audience that persuades them to accept the cause–effect connection.
***What are the parts of Monroe’s Motivated Sequence?
Monroe’s Motivated Sequence, a widely used method for organizing persuasive speeches developed by Monroe (1965), is rooted in traditional rhetoric and shaped by modern psychology. Monroe’s motivated sequence focuses on five steps to motivate your audience that follow the normal pattern of human thought from attention to action.
If you want only to persuade your audience that a problem exists, then only the first two steps are necessary.
If your audience is keenly aware of a problem, then you may focus only on the last three steps.
Most of the time, however, all five steps are necessary, and they should be followed in order.
STEP 1: ATTENTION. Persuasion is impossible without attention. Your first step is to capture the minds of your listeners and convince them that you have something important to say.
In your attention step, you must catch your audience’s attention, introduce and make your topic relevant, and establish your credibility.
STEP 2: NEED. you describe the problem you will address in your speech.
You hint at or suggest a need in your introduction, then state it in a way that accurately reflects your specific purpose.
You motivate listeners to care about the problem by making clear a problem exists, it is significant, and it affects them.
You illustrate need by using examples, intensifying it through the use of carefully selected additional supporting material, and linking it directly to the audience. Too often the inexperienced speaker who uses the motivated sequence will pass through the need step in haste to get to the third step, the satisfaction step.
The need step has four parts. It
(1) establishes there is a problem,
(2) explains the problem,
(3) proves that the problem is serious,
(4) connects the problem to specific needs the audience holds dear.
STEP 3: SATISFACTION. The satisfaction step presents a solution to the problem you have just described.
You offer a proposition you want your audience to adopt and act on.
A clear explanation as well as statistics, testimony, examples, and other types of support ensure that your audience understands what you propose.
Show your audience how your proposal meets the needs you presented earlier in your speech.
You may use several forms of support accompanied by visuals or audiovisual aids. An audience is usually impressed if you can show where and how a similar proposal has worked elsewhere.
Before you move to the fourth step, meet objections that you predict some listeners may hold.
In sum, a strong satisfaction step involves clearly stating an acceptable solution, offering strong evidence supporting the solution, demonstrating how the solution solves the problem, proving that it is a workable solution, and clarifying how the solution will satisfy the audience’s unresolved needs.
STEP 4: VISUALIZATION. The visualization step compels listeners to picture themselves either benefiting or suffering from adopting or rejecting your proposal.
It focuses on powerful imagery to create a vision of the future if your proposal is adopted or, just as important, if it is rejected.
It may also contrast these two visions, strengthening the attractiveness of your proposal by showing what will happen if no action is taken.
Positive visualization is specific and concrete.
Your goal is to help listeners see themselves under the conditions you describe.
. The visualization step can be enhanced with powerful visuals. Movie clips, sound tracks, interviews, and memorable photos have all been used successfully to help listeners fully engage their imagination in the future scenario.
STEP 5: ACTION. The action step acts as the conclusion of your speech.
Here you tell your listeners what you want them to do or, if action is unnecessary, the point of view you want them to share.
You may have to explain the specific actions you want and the timing for these actions.
This step is most effective when immediate action is sought.
Many students find the call to action a difficult part of the persuasive speech.
They are reluctant to make an explicit request for action..
***What kind of ethical considerations come with persuasive speaking?
12 Make sure your information is complete Make sure your claims are truthful Make sure that you do not use any of the fallacies as you try to persuade your audience to follow your message. etc.
***Maslow’s Hierarchy of needs (5 needs(
1) PHYSIOLOGICAL NEEDS.
the foundation of the hierarchy are our biological needs for food, water, oxygen, procreation, and rest.
2) SAFETY NEEDS.
need for security, freedom from fear and attack, a home that offers tranquility and comfort, and a means of earning a living.
3) BELONGINGNESS AND LOVE NEEDS.
our drive for affiliation, friendship, and love.
When appealing to the need for social belonging,.
4) ESTEEM NEEDS.
need to be seen as worthy and competent and to have the respect of others.
An effective approach would be to praise community members h
5) SELF-ACTUALIZATION NEEDS.
People who reach the top of the hierarchy seek to fulfill their highest potential through personal growth, creativity, self-awareness and knowledge, social responsibility, and responsiveness to challenge.
Your appeal to your audience’s sense of social responsibility would stress.
