High Yield Final Exam Deck Flashcards
***Steps to writing an outline
1) Narrow the Topic
2) write main points
3) Intro
4) Conclusion
5) Transitions
* **You do not need to apply the evidence
***What is plagiarism?
using another’s work, words, or deeds without adequate acknowledgment.
To use [another’s production] without crediting the source
To commit literary theft
To present as new and original an idea or product derived from an existing source
To steal and pass off [the ideas or words of another] as one’s own
***How do you use a verbal citation?
Citing sources accurately means putting in the work ahead of time to understand the source. Any time you offer facts, statistics, opinions, and ideas that you found in research, you should provide your audience with the source. In doing this, you enhance your own credibility. Your audience appreciates your depth of research on the topic, and you avoid accusations of plagiarism.Page 384
Accurate source representation comes from having a well-rounded understanding of the source. Critical thinking is necessary when assessing the source you intend to use. Among other information, it makes sense to check out who the author is or what the source is, what bias, if any, exists, what the intention of the author or source is, and what its intended use was.
5 criteria for evaluating web resources (list and apply)
1) AUTHORITY. relates to the concept of credibility. virtually anyone can become a web publisher.
A website that passes this first test contains information provided by an individual, group, or organization known to have expertise in the area.
2) ACCURACY. An accurate website is reliable and error-free. If the site was last updated two years ago and the site is discussing a bill before the legislature, then it is no longer accurate.
Millions of websites are also considered secondary sources, so the information has been interpreted by someone else. The information may be less accurate. Also, it is relatively easy to take information out of context when it is put online and can be removed at will.
3) OBJECTIVITY. The extent to which website material is presented without bias or distortion relates to objectivity.
What are the author’s credentials?
4) Coverage. the depth and breadth of the material. material may be too general or too specific. Determine if it meets your needs or if critical information is missing.
5) Currency. Currency refers to the timeliness of the material.
Some websites exist that have never been updated.
*** How do you conduct an interview?
CONTACT THE PERSON WELL IN ADVANCE. You may have to make several attempts to contact the person. Schedule a date and time to interview that leaves you with ample time to prepare your speech.
PREPARE QUESTIONS IN ADVANCE. An interview is a conversation between two or more people guided by a predetermined purpose. Know the purpose, and make sure you know what topics need to be covered and what information needs to be clarified.
DEVELOP QUESTIONS IN A LOGICAL ORDER. One question should lead naturally to another. Place the most important questions at the top to guarantee that they will be answered before your time is up.
STAY WITHIN THE AGREED TIME FRAME. If you promise the interview will take no longer than a half hour, keep your word, if at all possible. Build in a little time to ask questions based on the interviewee’s answers or for clarification.
5 goals for informative speaking
- Accurate
Informative speakers strive to present the truth. They understand the importance of careful research for verifying information they present. Facts must be correct and current. Research is crucial. Do not rely solely on your own opinion; find support from other sources.
Question the source of information. Is the source a nationally recognized magazine or reputable newspaper, or is it from someone’s post on a random blog? Source verification is important. Virtually anyone can post to the Internet. Check to see if your source has appropriate credentials, such as education, work experience, or verifiable personal experience. For example, how valid do you think information is from the Huffington Post?
Consider the timeliness of the information. Information becomes dated. If you want to inform the class about the heart transplant process, relying on sources more than a few years old would mislead your audience because science and technology change rapidly. Your instructor may require sources within a five- or 10-year span. If not, check the date your source was published (online or print), and determine whether it will be helpful or harmful to the overall effectiveness of your speech.
- Objective
Present information fairly and in an unbiased manner. Purposely leaving out critical information or “stacking the facts” to create a misleading picture violates the rule of objectivity. The following two strategies should help you maintain objectivity.
Take into account all perspectives. Combining perspectives creates a more complete picture. Avoiding other perspectives creates bias, and may turn an informative speech into a persuasive one. The chief negotiator for a union may have a completely different perspective than the administration’s Page 377chief negotiator on how current contract negotiations are proceeding. They may use the same facts and statistics, but interpret them differently. An impartial third party trying to determine how the process is progressing needs to speak with both sides and attempt to remove obvious bias.
Show trends. Trends put individual facts in perspective as they clarify ideas within a larger context. The whole—the connection among ideas—gives each detail greater meaning. If a speaker tries to explain how the stock market works, it makes sense to talk about the stock market in relation to what it was a year ago, five years ago, 10 years ago, or even longer, rather than focus on today or last week. Trends also suggest what the future will look like.
- Clear
To be successful, your informative speech must communicate your ideas without confusion. When a message is not organized clearly, audiences become frustrated and confused and, ultimately, they miss your ideas. Conducting careful audience analysis helps you understand what your audience already knows about your topic and allows you to offer a distinct, targeted message at their level of understanding. Choosing the best organizational pattern will also help your listeners understand your message. The following two strategies are designed to increase the clarity of your speech.
DEFINE UNFAMILIAR WORDS AND CONCEPTS. Unfamiliar words, especially technical jargon, can defeat your informative purpose. When introducing a new word, define it in a way your listeners can understand. Because you are so close to your material, knowing what to define can be one of your hardest tasks. Put yourself in the position of a listener who knows less about your topic than you do or ask a friend or colleague’s opinion.
In addition to explaining the dictionary definition of a concept or term, a speaker may rely on two common forms of definitions: operational and through example.
Operational definitions specify procedures for observing and measuring concepts. For example, in the United States an IQ test (Intelligence Quotient) is used to define how “smart” we are. According to Gregory (2004), someone who scores 95–100 is of average intelligence, a score of 120 or higher is above average, and a score of 155 or higher is considered “genius.” The government tells us who is “poor” based on a specified income level, and communication researchers can determine if a person has high communication apprehension based on his or her score on McCroskey’s Personal Report of Communication Apprehension.Page 378
Definition through example helps the audience understand a complex concept by giving the audience a “for instance.” In an effort to explain what is meant by the term “white-collar criminal,” a speaker could provide several examples, such as Jeff Skilling (former Enron executive convicted on federal felony charges relating to the company’s financial collapse), Rod Blagojevich (former Illinois governor found guilty of several charges related to his trying to sell President Obama’s Illinois Senate seat), and Wesley Snipes (actor convicted of tax evasion and jailed for three years in December 2010).
CAREFULLY ORGANIZE YOUR MESSAGE. Find an organizational pattern that makes the most sense for your specific purpose. Descriptive speeches, speeches of demonstration, and speeches of explanation have different goals. Therefore, you must consider the most effective way to organize your message. Descriptive speeches are often arranged in spatial, topical, and chronological patterns. For example, if a speaker chose to talk about Oktoberfest in Munich, a topical speech might talk about the beer tents, food possibilities, entertainment, and tourist activities. A speech following a chronological pattern might talk about when to start planning for the festival, when the festival begins, and what events occur on particular days. The topic is still Oktoberfest, but based on the organizational pattern, the speech focuses differently and contains different information.
Speeches of demonstration often use spatial, chronological, and cause-and-effect or problem–solution patterns. For example, in a speech on how to buy a home, a few organizational patterns are possible, depending on what aspect of the topic you chose as your focus. It would make sense to organize spatially if your focus is on what to examine as you search for homes. You might want to start with the roof and work down toward the basement (or vice versa) or you might look at the lot and outside features and then move inside. The lot could be divided into small parts, such as how big the lot is, how close neighbors are, what the view is all around the house, how much maintenance is needed on the lot, and so on. As you move inside, you could talk about the number of rooms, electricity, plumbing, access (stairs, attic, or crawl space), and so on.
A chronological pattern for how to buy a house would be more appropriate when talking about getting a real estate agent, finding a house, setting up financing, getting an appraisal, making an offer, getting the house appraised, and accepting a counter-offer. As you can see, the speech that is set up to follow a spatial pattern is significantly different than the speech that uses a chronological pattern.
Speeches of explanation are frequently arranged chronologically, or topically, or according to cause-and-effect or problem–solution. For example, Page 379for several years, the Asian carp has made headlines in the Great Lakes area because of its potential to harm the habitat of the Great Lakes. Using the Asian carp as a topic, a speech arranged chronologically could discuss how this threat has developed over the last decade, and what the future projection is. A problem–solution speech, on the other hand, could talk about the dangers related to the fish invasion of the Great Lakes and possible solutions to the problem. Important with the second organizational pattern is that the speech be kept as informative as possible, and not identify the “best” solution.
- Meaningful
A meaningful, informative message focuses on what matters to the audience as well as to the speaker. Relate your material to the interests, needs, and concerns of your audience. A speech explaining the differences between public and private schools delivered to the parents of students in elementary and secondary schools would not be as meaningful in a small town where no choice exists. Here are two strategies to help you develop a meaningful speech:
CONSIDER THE SETTING. The setting may tell you about audience goals. Informative speeches are given in many places, including classrooms, community seminars, and business forums. Audiences may attend these speeches because of an interest in the topic or because attendance is required. Settings tell you the specific reasons your audience has gathered.
AVOID INFORMATION OVERLOAD. Information overload can be frustrating and annoying because the listener experiences difficulty in processing so much information. Your job as an informative speaker is to know how much to say and, just as important, what to say. Long lists of statistics are mind-numbing. Be conscious of the relationship among time, purpose, and your audience’s ability to absorb information. Tie key points to stories, examples, anecdotes, and humor. Your goal is not to get it all in but to communicate your message as effectively as possible.
- Memorable
Speakers who are enthusiastic, genuine, and creative and who can communicate their excitement to their listeners deliver memorable speeches. Engaging examples, dramatic stories, and tasteful humor applied to your key ideas in a genuine manner will make a long-lasting impact.
USE EXAMPLES AND HUMOR. Nothing elicits interest more than a good example, and humorous stories are effective in helping the audience remember the material. When Sarah Weddington, winning attorney in the Roe v. Wade Supreme Court case, talks about the history of discriminatory practices in this country, she provides a personal example of how a bank required her husband’s signature on a loan even though she was working and he was in school. She also mentions playing “girls” basketball in school and being limited to three dribbles (boys could dribble the ball as many times as they wanted).Page 381
Physically involve your audience. Many occasions lend themselves to some type of audience participation. Consider asking for audience response to an observation: “Raise your hand if you have ever seen a tornado.” Seek help with your demonstration. If you are demonstrating how to make a cake, for example, you could ask someone to stir the batter. Ask some audience members to take part in an experiment that you conduct to prove a point. For example, hand out several headsets to volunteers and ask them to set the volume level where they usually listen to music. Then show how volume can affect hearing.
ethics in public speaking
idea that you have to balance the rights of the free speech
***first amendment. Is all speech protected by the First Amendment?
American citizens have the First Amendment right of freedom of speech.
***limitations on first amendment
Ultimately, limitations to our freedom of speech are decided by the U.S. Supreme Court. For example, the Supreme Court has ruled that dangerous speech, like falsely shouting “Fire!” in a movie theatre, is not protected by the First Amendment.
***what is the purpose of a speech
GENERAL PURPOSE. There are three general purposes for speeches:
To inform
To persuade
To entertain or inspire
different aspects of physical delivery
1 MOVE NATURALLY. Relax and use movement reasonably. Do not pace back and forth like a caged lion or make small darting movements that return you to the safety of the lectern.Page 300
2 TIE YOUR MOVEMENTS TO YOUR USE OF VISUAL AIDS. Walk over to the visual as you are presenting it and point to its relevant parts. Walk back to the lectern when finished. Aim for fluid movement.
3 BE PREPARED. Your instructor and the speaking environment will influence the opportunities for physical movement. Your instructor may allow or prohibit you from speaking behind a lectern or podium. In informal situations, it may be appropriate to walk through the aisles as you talk. In a small room, you can walk around without a microphone and still be heard. In a large room, you may need the help of a wireless microphone. Be prepared to adapt to your instructor’s rules and the speaking environment.
Remember that movement is a way to connect with the audience, get them involved, and keep their attention.
Facial Expressions
Our face not only provides information about our identity, age, and gender, it is the primary source of emotions. As we speak, our facial expressions change continually and are constantly monitored and interpreted by our listeners (Ivy & Wahl, 2014).Page 301
Japanese Prime Minister Shinzo Abe during his meeting with President of Ukraine Petro Poroshenko in Tokyo
Japanese politicians such as Prime Minister Shinzō Abe use more somber, serious expressions in their speeches when compared to Western countries.
© Drop of Light/Shutterstock.com
MATCH FACIAL EXPRESSIONS WITH YOUR TONE. Admittedly, there is much to consider when giving a speech, but sometimes we do not think about facial expressions. Your facial expression, however, should match the tone or emotion present in your speech. A serious tone in your voice should be accompanied by facial expressions that contribute to the serious tone.
SMILE, WHEN APPROPRIATE. Listeners also feel engaged when speakers smile. Even if you are nervous, work to demonstrate enthusiasm not only through your vocal qualities but also through facial expressions.
Eye Contact
No other aspect of nonverbal behavior is as important as eye contact, which is the connection you form with listeners through your gaze (Ivy & Wahl, 2014). Sustained eye contact can communicate confidence, openness, and honesty. It suggests you are a person of conviction, you care what your listeners are thinking, and you are eager for their feedback. When your eye contact is poor, you may be sending unintentional messages that the audience interprets as nervousness, hostility, being uncomfortable, or lack of interest. The audience may think you have something to hide or that you are not prepared.
Sometimes students only look at the instructor during their speeches. Also, some student speakers ignore half the class by looking at one side of the class only. When a speaker lacks eye contact, we sense that something is wrong. We offer the following three performance guidelines for reflection.
1 DISTRIBUTE YOUR GAZE EVENLY. Work on sustained eye contact with different members in the audience. Avoid darting your eyes around or sweeping the room with your eyes. Instead, maintain eye contact with a single person for a single thought. This may be measured in a phrase or a sentence. It may help to think of your audience as divided into several physical sectors. Focus on a person in each sector, rotating your gaze among the people and the sectors as you speak.
2 GLANCE ONLY BRIEFLY AND OCCASIONALLY AT YOUR NOTES. You may know your speech well, but when you are nervous, it may feel safer to keep looking at your notes. This is counterproductive. Do not keep your eyes glued to your notes.
3 DO NOT LOOK JUST ABOVE THE HEADS OF YOUR LISTENERS. Although this advice is often given to speakers who are nervous, it will be obvious to everyone that you are gazing into the air.Page 302
Appearance
Standards for appearance are influenced by culture and context (Ivy & Wahl, 2014; Wahl & Scholl, 2014). Americans visiting the Vatican will find that shoulders and knees should be covered in order to gain entry. It is okay to wear baseball caps outside, but in some contexts, it may be offensive to keep one on inside.
We do not have to move from one country to another to experience differences in perspectives on appearance. Some businesses allow more casual attire; others expect trendy, tailored clothing. As rhetorical theorist Kenneth Burke (1969, p. 119) reminds us, your clothes make a rhetorical statement of their own by contributing to your spoken message.
Your choice of shoes, suits, dresses, jewelry, tattoos, hairstyle, and body piercings should not isolate you from your listeners. If that occurs, the intent of your speech is lost. We offer the following guidelines for appearance, but the bottom line is, do nothing to distract from the message.
***Maslow’s hierarchy of needs: what are the core needs?
1) PHYSIOLOGICAL NEEDS.
the foundation of the hierarchy are our biological needs for food, water, oxygen, procreation, and rest.
2) SAFETY NEEDS.
need for security, freedom from fear and attack, a home that offers tranquility and comfort, and a means of earning a living.
3) BELONGINGNESS AND LOVE NEEDS.
our drive for affiliation, friendship, and love.
When appealing to the need for social belonging,.
4) ESTEEM NEEDS.
need to be seen as worthy and competent and to have the respect of others.
An effective approach would be to praise community members h
5) SELF-ACTUALIZATION NEEDS.
People who reach the top of the hierarchy seek to fulfill their highest potential through personal growth, creativity, self-awareness and knowledge, social responsibility, and responsiveness to challenge.
Your appeal to your audience’s sense of social responsibility would stress.
Maslow’s hierarchy of needs: what are we striving for?
5) SELF-ACTUALIZATION NEEDS.
People who reach the top of the hierarchy seek to fulfill their highest potential through personal growth, creativity, self-awareness and knowledge, social responsibility, and responsiveness to challenge.
Your appeal to your audience’s sense of social responsibility would stress.
Maslow’s hierarchy of needs: what is the most important?
1) PHYSIOLOGICAL NEEDS.
the foundation of the hierarchy are our biological needs for food, water, oxygen, procreation, and rest.
***What are the dimensions of speaker credibility?
COMPETENCE. In many cases, your audience will decide your message’s value based on perceived speaker competence. Your listeners will first ask Page 402themselves whether you have the background to speak. If the topic is crime, an audience is more likely to be persuaded by the Atlanta chief of police than by a postal worker delivering her personal opinions. Second, your audience will consider whether the content of your speech has firm support. When it is clear that speakers have not researched their topic, their ability to persuade diminishes. Finally, audiences will determine whether you communicate confidence and control of your subject matter through your delivery.
Prince Komatsu Akihito on 28 July 2016. at Tokyo, Japan. Prince Akihito was a 19th century diplomat and military leader.
In his position as Emperor, Akihito wields enormous persuasive power.
© Attila JANDI/Shutterstock.com
In our example above, Emperor Akihito makes clear that he is abreast of all the relevant information. He relays the strength of the earthquake, the results of the tsunami, and the seriousness of the nuclear disaster. Listeners quickly understood that he was well informed in this emergency. His display of competence by demonstrating an understanding of the facts increases his credibility even further.
TRUSTWORTHINESS. When someone is trying to persuade us to think or act a certain way, trusting that person is important. And although competence is important, research has shown that the trustworthy communicator is more influential than the untrustworthy one, regardless of his/her level of expertise (Wahl, 2013; Wahl & Maresh-Fuehrer, 2016).
Audience perceptions of trustworthiness are based largely on your perceived respect for them, your ethical standards, and your ability to establish common ground. Audiences gauge a speaker’s respect for them by analyzing the actions a speaker has taken before the speech. If a group is Page 403listening to a political candidate running for office in their community, they will have more respect for someone who has demonstrated concern for their community through past actions.
Trustworthiness is also influenced by the audience’s perception of your ethical standards. Telling the truth is paramount for the persuasive speaker. If your message is biased and you make little attempt to be fair or to concede the strength of your opponent’s point of view, your listeners may question your integrity.
Your credibility and your ability to persuade increase if you convince your audience that you share “common ground.” In the popular movie 300, Queen Gorgo addresses a reluctant Spartan Council, pleading with them to send the Spartan army into battle. Rather than appealing to the council as queen, she appeals to common ground in the opening: “Councilmen, I stand before you today not only as your Queen: I come to you as a mother; I come to you as a wife; I come to you as a Spartan woman; I come to you with great humility” (www.americanrhetoric.com).
While few can identify with being a queen, most feel a sense of identification with a humble mother, wife, woman, or citizen. With this common ground appeal in place, the stage is set for the queen to persuade the council to side with her. In this instance, Queen Gorgo establishes common ground by identifying with her audience and provoking them to identify with her.
DYNAMISM. Your credibility and, therefore, your ability to persuade are influenced by the audience’s perception of you as a dynamic spokesperson. Dynamic speakers tend to be vibrant, confident, vigorous, attractive, and skilled in public speaking. Your listeners will make critical decisions about how dynamic you are as they form a first impression. This impression will be reinforced or altered as they listen for an energetic style that communicates commitment to your point of view, and for ideas that build on one another in a convincing, logical way. While charisma plays a part in being dynamic, it is not enough. Dynamic public speakers tend to be well-practiced presenters.
Does credibility make a difference in your ability to persuade? Pornitakpan (2004), who examined five decades of research on the persuasiveness of speaker credibility, found that “a high-credibility source is more persuasive than is a low-credibility source in both changing attitudes and gaining behavioral compliance” (p. 266). Lifelong learning in the art of persuasion involves building and enhancing your speaker competence, trustworthiness, and dynamism.
***the difference between spoken and written style
Written language tends to be more complex and intricate than speech with longer sentences and many subordinate clauses. The punctuation and layout of written texts also have no spoken equivalent. However some forms of written language, such as instant messages and email, are closer to spoken language.
***Definition of Ethos
Speaker credibility.
***Definition of Logos
An appeal that is rational and reasonable based on evidence provided.
**Definition of Pathos
Persuading through emotional appeals.
***Definition of Mythos
A term given when content supports a claim by reminding an audience how the claim is consistent with cultural identity.
***Definition of antithesis
The use of contrast, within a parallel grammatical structure, to make a rhetorical point.
***Definition of active voice
When the verb of a sentence is in the active voice, the subject is doing the acting, as in the sentence “Kevin hit the ball.” Kevin (the subject of the sentence) acts in relation to the ball.
***Definition of passive voice
A verb is in the passive voice when the subject of the sentence is acted on by the verb. … For example, in “The ball was thrown by the pitcher,” the ball (the subject) receives the action of the verb, and was thrown is in the passive voice.
***Definition of analogies
Establishes common links between similar and not-so-similar concepts.
***Definition of metaphors
A symbol that tells your listeners that you are saying more; state that something is something else.
***Definition of innuendo
Veiled lies, hints, or remarks that something is what it is not.
***Definition of anaphora
The repetition of the same word or phrase at the beginning of successive clauses or sentences.
***Definition of alliteration
The repetition of the initial consonant or initial sounds in a series of words.
***Definition of similes
Create images as they compare the characteristics of two different things using words “like” and “as.”
What does the PARTS stand for?
It is A mnemonic for building your information literacy through
P Point of View A Authority R Reliability T Timeliness S Scope
***5 functions of support in a speech
1) SUPPORT IS SPECIFIC.
2) SUPPORT HELPS TO CLARIFY IDEAS.
3) SUPPORT ADDS WEIGHT. The use of credible statistics and expert opinion
This type of support convinces listeners by building a body of evidence that may be difficult to deny.
4) SUPPORT IS APPROPRIATE TO YOUR AUDIENCE.
5) SUPPORT CREATES INTEREST. When used properly, supporting materials can transform ordinary details into a memorable presentation.
***Fallacies:
Ad hominem
This fallacy occurs when, instead of addressing someone’s argument or position, you irrelevantly attack the person or some aspect of the person who is making the argument. The fallacious attack can also be direct to membership in a group or institution.
***Fallacies:
Bandwagoning
Unethical speakers may convince listeners to support their point of view by telling them that “everyone else” is already involved.
***Fallacies:
glittering generalities
rely on the audience’s emotional responses to values such as home, country, and freedom.
the audience’s response so that critical judgments about major issues are clouded in other areas is unethical.
***Fallacies:
testimonials
can be both helpful and destructive.
***Fallacies:
plainfolks
statements crafted to create false identification with the audience.
Fallacies:
Name calling
linking a person or group with a negative symbol
***Fallacies: slippery slope
This fallacy claims there will be a chain reaction that will end in some dire consequence.
***Definition of values
socially shared ideas about what is good, right, and desirable. They propel us to speak and act.
***Definition of intrinsic ethos and extrinsic ethos
intrinsic ethos is the ethical appeal found in the actual speech, including such aspects as supporting material, argument flow, and source citation
extrinsic ethos is a speaker’s image in the mind of the audience. Extrinsic aspects include how knowledgeable, trustworthy, and dynamic the speaker is perceived to be.
***Definition of dialog communication
dialogic communication entails an honest concern for listeners’ interests. This kind of speech “communicates trust, mutual respect and acceptance, open-mindedness, equality, empathy, directness, lack of pretense, and non-manipulative intent.
***Definition of monologic communication
Author-centered speakers engage in monologic communication. They view the audience as an object to be manipulated and freely use deception, superiority, exploitation, dogmatism, domination, insincerity, pretense, coercion, distrust, and defensiveness—all qualities considered unethical.
List 5 Guidelines for ethical speaking
- Protect your credibility
- Engage in Dialogue, not Monologue
- Stand by Four Principles of Ethical Speech
- Protect the Common Good
- Speak Truthfully
***Guidelines for ethical speaking:
Protect your credibility
(also list other 4)
- Protect your credibility: speakers can abuse their ethical relationship with their listeners when:
- they misinterpret information or fail to collect all the information needed to give a complete and fair presentation
- when self-interest leads them to dishonesty and lack of goodwill.
- extrinsic and intrinsic ethos - Engage in Dialogue, not Monologue
- Stand by Four Principles of Ethical Speech
- Protect the Common Good
- Speak Truthfully
Guidelines for ethical speaking:
Stand by Four Principles of Ethical Speech (also list other 4)
- Stand by Four Principles of Ethical Speech
1) Search: putting forth an effort to learn enough about your topic to speak knowledgeably
.2) Justice: select and present facts and opinions openly and fairly. Instead of attempts to distort or conceal evidence, just speakers offer the audience the opportunity to make fair judgments.
3) Public Motivation: contrast to public motivation are hidden agendas.
4) Respect for Dissent: allows for and encourages diversity of argument and opinion. It involves seeing a different point of view as a challenge rather than a threat. It means being open to accepting views different from one’s own. This does not mean we have to give in when we disagree.
- Protect your credibility
- Engage in Dialogue, not Monologue
- Protect the Common Good
- Speak Truthfully
Guidelines for ethical speaking:
Engage in Dialogue, not Monologue
(also list other 4)
2.Engage in Dialogue, not Monologue
Author-centered speakers engage in monologic communication. They view the audience as an object to be manipulated and freely use deception, superiority, exploitation, dogmatism, domination, insincerity, pretense, coercion, distrust, and defensiveness—all qualities considered unethical.
dialogic communication entails an honest concern for listeners’ interests. This kind of speech “communicates trust, mutual respect and acceptance, open-mindedness, equality, empathy, directness, lack of pretense, and non-manipulative intent.
- Protect your credibility
- Stand by Four Principles of Ethical Speech
- Protect the Common Good
- Speak Truthfully
Guidelines for ethical speaking:
Protect the Common Good
(also list other 4)
4.Protect the Common Good: As speakers, we strive to be aware that we have the power to persuade and the power to pass on information to others—powers that must be used for the common good.
- Protect your credibility
- Engage in Dialogue, not Monologue
- Stand by Four Principles of Ethical Speech5.Speak Truthfully
Guidelines for ethical speaking:
Speak Truthfully
(also list other 4)
5.Speak Truthfully: be certain of your facts.
- Protect your credibility
- Engage in Dialogue, not Monologue
- Stand by Four Principles of Ethical Speech
- Protect the Common Good
***5 ethical pitfalls:
1) Purposeful Ambiguity
2) Rumors and Innuendo
3) Herd Mentality
4) Hidden Agendas
5) Excessive and Inappropriate Emotional Appeals
ethical pitfalls:
Purposeful Ambiguity
leave out specific detail, we can paint a misleading picture
ethical pitfalls:
Rumors and Innuendo
Rumors are unproven charges, usually about an individual.
Innuendos are veiled lies, hints, or remarks that something is what it is not.
ethical pitfalls:
Herd Mentality
Speaking in support of the public good implies a willingness to air a diversity of opinions, even when these opinions are unpopular.
ethical pitfalls:
Hidden Agendas
An ethical speaker is transparent while offering the strongest possible legitimate arguments, allowing each listener to evaluate the argument on its merits.
ethical pitfalls:
Excessive and Inappropriate Emotional Appeals
speakers prey on our fears or ignorance and rely heavily on the use of excessive and inappropriate appeals to emotion.
four circumstances that create ethical concern.
DECEPTION. Your speech creates a need in your audience through deception and requires an action that will primarily benefit you.
MANIPULATION. This emotional appeal is aimed at taking advantage of those particularly susceptible to manipulation.
CONFUSION. Emotional appeals are part of a sustained plan to confuse an audience and make them feel insecure and helpless.
***What is a fallacy?
the speaker disguises messages and deceives listeners to achieve his or her goal with specific strategies
informational literacy:
What does the P in PARTS stand for?
POINT OF VIEW. Recognize whether there is a point of view or bias. Is the information making every attempt at being objective or is it likely biased to serve a special interest?
Discerning the point of view is critical to consuming information intelligently.
informational literacy:
What does the A in PARTS stand for?
AUTHORITY. Consider the credentials of both the author and publisher. Are they recognized as experts and/or leaders in the field? Does the author hold a terminal degree such as Ph.D. or M.D.? Is the publisher a scholarly or reputable news source? The issue of authority is challenging online.
The person who is responsible for content on some web pages and blogs is not always clear. In these cases,
it is best to look for independent confirmation in other locations to ensure accuracy.
informational literacy:
What does the R in PARTS stand for?
RELIABILITY. Even if the point of view seems unbiased and the source checks out, consider whether you can believe in the accuracy and treatment of the information. Reliability is related to the credibility, or believability, of the source.
If a science community came to these conclusions after independent tests, the information has greater credibility.
An ethical speaker will look for the most recent, authentic, and unbiased information.
informational literacy:
What does the T T in PARTS stand for?
TIMELINESS. Timeliness refers to how current the information is.
Evaluate how important recent information is to your topic as you gather information.
informational literacy:
What does the S in PARTS stand for?
SCOPE. Scope refers to the extent of your research.
Check to see that your research has both depth and breadth appropriate for the topic and audience.
Does the information create an overview or develop a narrow portion of your topic?
Who is the information intended for, and is any information too technical or too basic?
***3 Ethical Listening Responsibilities
1) BE AWARE OF DISTRACTIONS refers to your ability to overcome distractions including extraneous noise in the environment and the speaker’s mannerisms
2) CHECK YOUR EMOTIONS acknowledges that we all have an internal world of emotionsThe key is to maintain an objective distance from the subject and messenger.
3) THINK CRITICALLY ABOUT THE MESSAGE. Critical thinking is possible only when we have first eliminated distractions and controlled our emotions.
Essential for Excellence: practical tips for ethical speaking
Show respect for your audience.
Be honest and don’t mislead your audience
Ensure your objective is ethical.
Forms of Support (FASET)
What does F stand for
explain 3 purposes
Describe guidelines for using facts
Facts: serve at least three purposes:
FACTS CLARIFY YOUR MAIN POINT. Facts remove ambiguity, making it more likely that the message you send is the message your audience will receive.
FACTS INDICATE YOUR KNOWLEDGE OF THE SUBJECT. Your audience wants to know that you have researched the topic and can discuss specifics about your topic.
FACTS DEFINE. Facts provide needed definitions that may explain new concepts.
Guidelines for Using Facts
1) CAREFULLY DETERMINE HOW MANY FACTS TO USE. Too few facts reveal that you spent little time researching, while too many may overwhelm your listeners. To be effective, the number and complexity of the facts must be closely tied to the needs of your listeners.
2) DEFINE TERMS WHEN THEY ARE INTRODUCED. The first time you use a term that requires explanation, define it so your meaning is clear
3) MAKE SURE YOUR MEANINGS ARE CLEAR. If words or phrases have different meanings to you than they do to members of your audience, the impact of your speech is lessened. Misunderstandings occur when your audience attributes meanings to terms you did not intend.
***Forms of Support (FASET)
1) Facts
2) Analogies
3) Statistics
4) Examples
5) Testimony
***Primary sources vs. Secondary sources
Primary information is directly associated with its producer, such as a personal diary, original government document, or a news broadcast.
Secondary sources are reproductions or references of primary source material cited by other writers.
Forms of Support (FASET)
What does S stand for
explain and list 4 guidelines for using statistics
STATISTICS: the collection, analysis, interpretation, and presentation of information in numerical form. Statistics give us the information necessary to understand the magnitude of issues and to compare and contrast different points.STATISTICS CAN BE MISLEADING.
1) BE PRECISE. Make sure you understand the statistics before including them in your speech.
2) AVOID USING TOO MANY STATISTICS. Too many statistics will confuse and bore your audience and blunt the impact of your most important statistical points. Save your statistics for the places in your speech where they will make the most impact.
3) CITE YOUR SOURCES. Because statistics are rarely remembered for very long, it is easy for speakers to misquote and misuse them—often in a calculated way for their own ends. As an ethical speaker, you need to make sure your statistics are correct and you need to quote your sources.
4) USE VISUAL AIDS TO EXPRESS STATISTICS. Statistics become especially meaningful to listeners when they are presented in visual form. Visual presentations of statistics free you from the need to repeat a litany of numbers that listeners will probably never remember. Instead, by transforming these numbers into visual presentations, you can highlight only the most important points, allowing your listeners to refer to the remaining statistics at any time.
