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AP Biology > Heredity & Gene Expression and Regulation (5+6) > Flashcards

Heredity & Gene Expression and Regulation (5+6) Flashcards

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1
Q

Polygenic Trait

A

Phenotypic characteristics that are affected by more than one allele

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1
Q

Epiststasis

A

The expression of one gene effects the expression of another gene

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2
Q

What did Morgan do?

A

Studied fruit flies, and determined X-Linked traits (SEX-LINKED TRAITS)
- Linked genes (on same chromosome = get inherited together)

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3
Q

Cross over is a form of ___?

A

Genetic recombination and INCREASES diversity

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4
Q

Cross over frequencies

A

Farther apart = greater chance of crossing over

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5
Q

Null Hypothesis

A

No relationship between the variables

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6
Q

Pleiotropy

A

1 gene has multiple effects on an organism
ex. Sickle Cell Anemia

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7
Q

Co-Dominance

A

Two alleles are expressed equally

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8
Q

Incomplete Dominance

A

Neither of the two alleles can concel the other
ex. Pink Flower (from red and white parents_

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9
Q

True Breeding

A

Homozygous for all alleles being considered

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10
Q

Test Cross

A

Homogenous recessive x unknown individual

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11
Q

Non- Disjunction

A

Failure of a chromosome to fully separate during meiosis/gamete formation

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12
Q

Non Nuclear Inheritance

A

Mitochondira and chloroplast
mitochondria are maternally inherited (egg not sperm)

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13
Q

Mendels Law of Segregation

A

Diploid. -> meiosis (randomly segregates 1 copy of each gene into each gamete)

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14
Q

Mendels Law of Dominance

A

Complete dominance

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14
Q

Mendels Law of Indepedant Assortment

A

9:3:3:1
The two alleles of one gene segregates independantly (meiosis) of the alleles from another gene
- Genes are not linked

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15
Q

DNA contains…

A

Instructions for making RNA, which contains instructions for making proteins, which carry out cell functions

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16
Q

DNA is a long mass of strands called?

A

Chromatin

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17
Q

During cellular division, DNA is reorganized and ___ into ____.

A

Condensed, chromosomes

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18
Q

Histones

A

An organized arrangement of proteins that condense DNA into chromosomes

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19
Q

Human somatic cells have __ chromosomes

A

46
22 pairs of homologus chromosomes
1 pair of sex chromosomes

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20
Q

Homologous

A

Similar but not the same
ex. Blue eye and Green eye allele

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21
Q

Allele

A

Different form of the same gene

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22
Q

Diploid

A

A cell that contains pairs of homologous chromosomes
# in humans = 46

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23
Q

Haploid

A

Cell containing unpaired chromosomes (sperm and egg cells)

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24
Q

Polyploid

A

More than two sets of homologous chromosomes

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25
Q

What is the purpose of the cell cycle

A

To pass genetic information from parent to daughter cell, through cellular division

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26
Q

What are the four phases of the cell cycle

A

G1, S Phase, G2 Phase, Cytokinesis

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27
Q

Interphase includes

A

G1 phase, s phase, G2 phase

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28
Q

What happens during G1 Phase

A

Rapid growth and metabolic activity

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29
Q

What happens during S Phase?

A

Synthesis (DNA is replicated)
2 identical chromosomes are joined at the centromere

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30
Q

What happens during G2 Phase?

A

Cell rebuilds reserve energy and makes required proteins for cell division

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31
Q

What happens during prophase?

A

Centrioles migrate to opposite poles of the cell and the nuclear membrane fades

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32
Q

What are centrioles?

A

Small proteins that provide a site for spindle fibres to attach to

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33
Q

What happens during metaphase?

A

Sister chromatids move towards the center of the cell

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34
Q

What happens during anaphase?

A

Centromeres divide and sister chromatids (now chromosomes) move to opposite poles

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35
Q

What happens during telophase?

A

Chromosomes reach opposite poles of the cell
Spindle fibres dissolve
Nuclear membrane forms around each mass of chromatin

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36
Q

What happens during cytokinesis

A

Splitting of the cytoplasm

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37
Q

What happens during animal cell cytokinesis?

A

Furrow develops, pinching cell into 2 pairs

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38
Q

What happens during plant cell cytokinesis?

A

Cell plate develops = new cell wall

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39
Q

Are centrioles found in plants?

A

NO

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40
Q

What is the cell clock?

A

Regulates how many times a cell divides

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41
Q

Trisomy 21

A

Down Syndrom

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42
Q

Female with 1 X chromosome

A

Turners Syndrom

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43
Q

XXY

A

Klinefelters Syndrom

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44
Q

Trisomy 13

A

Patau’s Syndrom

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45
Q

Trisomy 18

A

Edwards Syndrom

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46
Q

XYY

A

Jacobers Syndrom

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47
Q

When does crossing over occur?

A

Prophase 1 (meiosis)

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48
Q

Who discovered DNA structure and base pairing?

A

Watson and Crick

49
Q

Who discovered DNA’s helical shape

A

Franklin

50
Q

DNA replication occurs during…?

A

The S phase of cell cycle in a semiconservative fashion and in a 5’ to 3’ direction

51
Q

What are operons?

A

They act as on/off switches for transcription (allow for gene production to happen only when needed)

52
Q

What is central dogma?

A

The flow of genetic information
DNA -> RNA -> Proteins

53
Q

What does Helicase do?

A

Unzips DNA by breaking H bonds between nucleotides to produce a Replication Fork

54
Q

What are primer sites?

A

They indicate where replication should begin

55
Q

What does primase do?

A

Binds to the primers and to create the primer region

56
Q

What does DNA polymerase do?

A

attaches to the primer region and adds nucleotides to a growing DNA strand in 5’ -> 3’ direction

57
Q

Leading strand

A

The DNA strand that is copied continuously in the replication fork

58
Q

Lagging strand

A

Consists of okazaki fragments

59
Q

What does DNA lygase do?

A

Glues together okazaki fragments

60
Q

What is excision repair?

A

A section of DNA containing an error is cut out and then filled in by DNA polymerase

61
Q

What does topoisomerase do?

A

Helps in the unwinding and rewinding of DNA (relaxes supercoil at replication fork)

62
Q

What does lygase do?

A

Connects two strands of DNA together by forming a bond between the phosphate group of one strand and the deoxyribose group of another

63
Q

What are telomeres?

A

Short repetitative DNA sequences at the end of chromosomes that protect the ends of chromosomes

64
Q

What does telomerase do?

A

Produces protective DNA sequences (telomeres)

65
Q

Which bases are purines?

A

A, G (pure sliver)

66
Q

Which bases are pyrimidines?

A

C, T

67
Q

Gregor Mendel determined…?

A

Factors called genes are inherited in a particular manner

68
Q

Erwin Chargaff proposed…?

A

A 1:1 ratio of purines and pyrimidines

69
Q

Watson and Crick ..?

A

A model showing an anti-parallel double helix

70
Q

Rosalind Franklin…?

A

used x-rays to show a helical structure of DNA

71
Q

Thomas Hunt Morgan…?

A

Studied fruit flies and proposed the chromosomal theory of inheritance

72
Q

What is DNA Replication?

A

Creating an exact copy of a DNA molecule (its genome), during S phase

73
Q

What does semi conservative replication mean?

A

Each new molecule of DNA contains one parent strand of the original complimentary DNA molecule and one new strand

74
Q

What happens during initiation?

A

DNA replication 1
Helicase enzyme bonds to the replication origin on the DNA, the double strand opens creating s replication fork (free bases are exposed)

75
Q

What is the replication fork?

A

Two unwound DNA strands that branch out into two complimentary single strands (templates for making new DNA strands)

76
Q

What happens during elongation?

A

DNA replication 2
RNA primers attach to free nitrogen bases to act as starting blocks with the help of primase enzyme.
Then, DNA polymerase adds complimentary base pairs to both original strands from 5’ to 3’
Then, DNA lygase enzyme glues the two new growing strands together

77
Q

What direction is DNA built in?

A

5’ -> 3’ (nucleotides are added to 3’ end (free OH)

78
Q

What are the conditions for elogation to occur?

A
  1. Can only occur in the 5’ to 3’ direction
  2. A short strand of RNA (primer) must serve as starting point for the attachment for new nucleotides
79
Q

What happens during termination?

A

DNA replication 3

80
Q

Where does transcription occur?

A

In the nucleus

81
Q

What happens during transcription?

A

Sections of one DNA strand is copied into a messenger RNA (mRNA) molecule

82
Q

Where does translation occur?

A

In the cytoplasm

83
Q

What happens during translation?

A

mRNA is translated into a chain of amino acids using transfer RNA (tRNA) molecules and ribosomes

84
Q

What is the sense strand?

A

The one strand of the DNA molecule that is transcripted

85
Q

What is the anti-sense strand?

A

The not transcripted DNA strand

86
Q

What does mRNA do?

A

Carries info from the DNA in the nucleus to protein synthesis machinery in the cytoplasm

87
Q

What does RNA polymerase do?

A

Creates a complimentary strand of codons to the sense strand of DNA (during transcription)

88
Q

What are the three characteristics of the genetic codea/

A
  1. Redundant
  2. Continuous
  3. Universal
89
Q

How is genetic code interpreted?

A

mRNA codon (not DNA codon)

90
Q

What are codons?

A

DNA triplets

91
Q

What is the mRNA codons the same as?

A

Complimentary to the sense strand
Excatly the same as the anti-sense strand

92
Q

What funky shape does anti-codons have?

A

Hairpin loop (because of attractive forces)

93
Q

RNA polymerase copies the gene by base pairing with what strand?

A

Non coding strand

94
Q

How is a mutation inherited?

A

If it happens in the gametes (germ cells)

95
Q

What mutation are not inherited/

A

Mutations that occur in the somatic cells

96
Q

What is a silent mutation?

A

An incorrect nucleotide is subsituted, but still codes for the same amino acid = no effect on protein function

97
Q

What is a mis-sense mutation?

A

An incorrect nucleotide is subsituted, changing the amino acid.

98
Q

What is a conservative mis-sense mutation?

A

An amino acid change but the amino acid has the same properties (hydrophilic/phobic)
- Usually not deleterious

99
Q

What is a non - conservative mis-sense mutation?

A

Amino acid change with a deleterious loss of function

100
Q

What is a heterozygous advantage?

A

Explains why some deleterious mutations are maintained in a population

101
Q

What is a non-sense mutation?

A

An insertation or deletion of a base.
Causes the protein to be non functional

102
Q

What is a frame shift mutation?

A

The codons are shifted one base forward or backward because of the insertion or deletion of a base)

103
Q

What is a point gene mutation?

A

Lead to evolution (can be beneficial or harmful)
ex. Cystic Fibrosis, Sickle Cell Anemia

104
Q

What is recombinant DNA?

A

DNA that includes genetic material from different sources

105
Q

What is Restriction Endonucleases (RE)

A

Enzymes that catalyze the cleavage of DNA at specific nucleotide sequences

106
Q

What is DNA’s charge?

A

Negative (PO4-, OH-)

107
Q

What is bacterial transformation?

A

Gene alteration of a cell from the direct uptake and incorporation of exergonic (foreign) material

108
Q

What are intercoms?

A

Sequences of mRNA that do not code for amino acids

109
Q

What are inducers?

A

Molecules that can bind to the regulatory protein and cause it to change shape

110
Q

What is alternative splicing?

A

The process of splicing internos and connecting exons in mature mRNA
Exons can be retained in different variations which leads to different proteins

111
Q

What is an operen?

A

Closely linked genes that produce 1 mRNA molecule during transcription.
It is under control of the same regulatory sequence and the operator

112
Q

What is an operator?

A

A sequence that inhibits or promotes transcription by binding with regulatory proteins

113
Q

What does a GTP Cap do?

A

It protects the mRNA transcript and helps ribosomes attach to mRNA

114
Q

What is the poly-A tail?

A

100-200 adenine bases that increase the stability of the mRNA and helps in exporting from nucleus

115
Q

What are promoters?

A

DNA sequences that are upstream from the transcription start where RNA polymerase and transcription factors bind to initiate transcription

116
Q

What is horizontal transfer of genetic information?

A

The exchange of genetic information between different genomes or between unrelated organisms

117
Q

What is transformation?

A

A type of horizontal transfer
The uptake of naked DNA from an external environmental source

118
Q

What is naked DNA?

A

DNA not protected by proteins or other molecules

119
Q

What is transduction?

A

A type of horizontal transfer
Transmission of foriegn DNA into a cell when a viral genome integrates with the host

120
Q

What is conjugation?

A

A type of horizontal transfer
Cell to cell transfer if DNA through external extension

121
Q

What is transposition?

A

The movement of DNA segments without n and between DNA molecules

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