Henry VIII Flashcards
Differences between Henry VIII and his father.
Lacked his father’s work ethic, boisterous compared to H7’s quiet nature, as a ‘spare heir’ he was raised away from his father at Eltham Palace.
Henry VIII’s upbringing.
Spent money with abandon, ate and drank well, was well versed in humanist thought and was fluent in Latin, Greek, Italian and French, received chivalric education- learned how to fight, ride a horse and use a bow.
How did Henry VIII’s life change following the death of Arthur in 1502?
Moved to Richmond Palace for greater protection, no longer allowed to participate in rougher chivalric sports.
Henry VIII’s aims during his reign.
-Reign was seen as inconsistent- his aims changing constantly.
-Establishing his dynasty and position in Europe- marrying Catherine of Aragon.
-Re-establishing the nobility.
-Re-introducing war-like foreign policy- the pursuit of military glory.
-Securing the succession.
Henry VIII’s government (overall)
He liked to have an overview of his gov. but was happy to let others do the mundane work for him.
The style of gov. varied across his reign.
Major overhaul of relations between crown and parliament.
Governance via councils broke down due to conflict between the king’s impulsive personality and his more conservative councillors.
Early years followed H7- increasing revenue.
Henry VIII’s government structure.
The King.
The Court- wherever the king was.
The Privy Council- people appointed by Henry to advise him on affairs of state; 20 members; H8 never attended.
The Privy Chamber- had its own staff outside the jurisdiction of the Lord Chamberlain. Starkey argues it increased in significance through H8’s reign.
The end of government by councils.
Conservative councillors that favoured H7’s ways were reluctant to support H8’s pursuit of France.
When he became more attune to governing he became his own man by asserting his undoubted right to control decision-making.
H8 surrounded himself with like-minded young courtiers who reinforced his suspicions of the ‘old guard’.
What roles were appointed to Wolsey by the Pope and Henry VIII?
Pope- Cardinal.
Henry VIII- Lord Chancellor.
What drew Henry to Wolsey?
As councillors tried to get Henry to preside at the council, Wolsey encouraged Henry to go hunting and enjoy himself as he knew Henry disliked routine work
Who was Thomas Cromwell?
He was the principal advisor to H8, he was mainly responsible for the reformation of England, the dissolution of monasteries and the strengthening of the royal administration.
What is the dissolution of monasteries? (1536)
This is when Henry made every monastery close down and surrender all of its land to the crown.
What is the royal administration?
The management of any office or organisation.
When did Henry VIII’s reign start and end?
1509-1547
Trade in Henry VIII’s reign.
-Volume of English trade increased
-Continued rise in cloth exports
-Wollen cloth exports doubled
-Diverse trade compared to H7: hide and tin
-Growth in mining industries
-English trade dominated by the ‘Merchant Adventure’- owed their dominant position to the large loans they gave to the Crown, in return they were granted exclusive privileges.
-1526: trade embargo with the Netherlands in an attempt to ‘fight’ Spain as a result of the diplomatic revolution.
What was the diplomatic revolution?
Henry signs the Anglo-French Treaty of the More, switching sides in a ‘diplomatic revolution’.
Henry’s views on exploration?
He was uninterested in exploration and made no attempt to build on the early achievements of Cabot.
His focus was firmly on increasing trade at the expense of rivals.
Who were the elites?
The rich, who wielded a considerable amount of political and economic influence.
How does land affect the nobility?
Economic decline in the 15th century (selling of land) lowered the social prestige of the nobility.
The sale and leasing out of great estates- a very active land market- availability of land marked the beginning of the rise of the gentry.
H8 bestowed property on nobles at times to enable them to exert royal authority.
The rise of the Urban Elites.
Henry VIII saw a rise in the status, wealth and power of the UE.
These were citizens and burgesses of large towns and cities who made their wealth by trade.
Commoners (overview)
The decline in the economic and political power of great landowners brought about the disappearance of serfdom and labour services.
All the peasantry were now theoretically free- and could move more easily.
Former peasants took advantage of the availability of land and amassed 80 hectares or more = commercial farmers and joined the ranks of the yeomen.
What is serfdom?
condition in medieval Europe in which a tenant farmer was bound to a hereditary plot of land and the will of his landlord.
Who are the yeomen?
the oldest of the Royal bodyguards and the oldest military corps in existence in Britain
Amicable grant (1536), causes and impact.
Cause- many refused to pay- the imposition of taxes to pay for foreign wars was highly unpopular- instability and disorder.
Impact- dukes handled the matter sensitively- demonstrated very clearly that Henry could not operate in defiance of paying taxes.
What was the Amicable Grant?
Strongest resistance in North Essex and South Suffolk.
What was the Kildare rebellion?
Silken Thomas
Mainly political uprising- objectives to expel the English administration and become the sole ruler of Ireland.
Kildare Rebellion: causes, impact and cost.
Silken Thomas.
Causes: factional- Cromwell favoured Kildare’s rivals for government offices and the Earl began to resent his declining influence- his son led the rebellion.
Impact: with no imperial aid Thomas surrendered on the promise of his life; potentially dangerous- Ireland was becoming a hotbed of rebellion (useful landing stage for Spanish/French invasion).
Cost: £25,000- 75 executions- the crown no longer had an Irish family to safeguard its interest and rival clans (O’Niels) felt less intimidated and more willing to break the law.
What was the Pilgrimage of Grace?
The largest rebellion of Tudor England.
Rebellion was never a direct threat to H8- people were loyal to the still relatively new dynasty- grievances and resentment was aimed at the policy-makers namely Cromwell.
PILGRIMAGE OF GRACE 1536-37
CAUSES
*important.
Causes: various secular motives played a part- H8’s religious reforms were among the grievances; resentment towards the government; and the Ponterfact Articles.
Pilgrimage of Grace.
Religious motives.
-Dissolutions of monasteries.
-Fear for parish and traditional religious practices: Cromwell’s 1536 injunctions were seen as attacking traditional religious practices:
+ pilgrimage was discouraged
+ church plates and jewels given by parishioners were confiscated.
- Loss of charitable and educational functions (monasteries)
- Loss of churches/ monastic properties.
- Loss of services from monasteries.
Pilgrimage of Grace.
Secular Motives.
-Ordinary rebels were motivated by economic grievances- resentment of taxation.
-Courtly conspiracy to restore Princess Mary as heir.
Reform of the Church.
Weaknesses of the Church.
Corruption
-Pluralism (receiving profits from more than one post)
-Simony (the purchase of Church offices)
-Non-residence (receiving the profits of a post but not being present to perform duties associated with it)-Wolsey.
Anticlericalism.
-Opposition to the political and social importance of the clergy.
-Less of a cause more of a consequence, more a result of the reformation.
Decline of Monasticism.
-Wolsey had already secured the dissolution of 20 houses in the 1520s= allowed him to fund Cardinal College, Oxford.
-Some historians have argued that monasticism was a relic of a bygone age- most monasteries had become large businesses.
-The ease with which they were dissolved points to their value to the people not being so high.
What is anticlericalism?
The opposition to religious authority.
Reform of the Church.
Changes to the Church’s structure.
Change and Significance.
Change- King becomes SUPREME
HEAD of the church.
Significance- Confirmed by the act of
supremacy (1534)- the act did not
confer (grant) the supremacy to the
king.
Change- King appoints Cromwell
Vicegerent in Spirituals (1534)
Significance- Cromwell is now 2nd to
the king- outranked the
archbishops and bishops- gave him
considerable power over the
church.
Change- 6 new dioceses (under the
jurisdiction of bishops) were
created.
Significance- An attempt to improve
Church administration.
Reform in Doctrine and Practice.
Attack on traditional religious practices- the 1st and 2nd royal injunctions restricted the number of holy days to be observed + discouraged pilgrimages (1538- pilgrimages and the veneration of relics and images were condemned).
The English Bible- 2nd injunctions (1538) required each parish to acquire the English Bible and encourage all to read it.
-1539- The first edition of the Great Bible appeared.
-Henry was cautious in allowing subjects to read it; an Act for the Advancement of True Religion (1534) restricted the reading of the bible to upper-class males.
What was the 1539 Act of Ten Articles? Significance?
-Only 3 sacraments: baptism, penance & Eucharist = are necessary to salvation.
-The definition of Eucharist was ambiguous.
-Confession was praised.
-Praying to saints for remission of sins was rejected.
-Praying to saints for other purposes was laudable.
Significance
-Ambiguous document which showed both Lutheran ad Catholic influences on the development of the doctrine.
What was the 1537 Bishop’s book measure? Significance?
-Restore the 4 sacraments omitted from the 10 articles BUT were given lower status.
Significance.
-A more conservative document than the Articles.
What was the 1539 Six Articles Act? Significance?
-Reasserted Catholic doctrine
-Denial of transubstantiation was heretical.
Significance.
-Triumph for the conservatives- founded on the assumption that there had been too much religious controversy- undermined the good ordering of society.
What is the 1543 King’s Book measure? Significance?
-Revised the Bishop’s book.
Significance.
-Emphasis was largely conservative but with some Lutheran hints.
What were the differences between H8 and H7’s structure of government?
-In the short term there was a renewed emphasis on governing through council, which then made two comebacks at later stages of the reign (1529-32, 1540-47.
-For two periods during his reign Henry relied upon the work of a chief minister who shaped the structures of government to meet his own needs. The first of these was Thomas Wolsey who was particularly adept at using Star Chamber. The second was Thomas Cromwell, who developed his role as principal secretary.
What was Henry’s fourfold legacy from his father?
-Money: it is believed that H7 left around £300,000 upon his death.
-Unpopular mechanisms for extracting money.
-A peaceful foreign policy.
-A conciliar form of government: decisions were made through a council.
How did Henry use the fourfold legacy his father left him?
The money would vanish as a result of paying for the revival of a traditionally aggressive foreign policy towards France.
The conciliar form of government would disappear in the short term as a result of Thomas Wolsey.
How did Henry distance himself from his father’s regime?
The abolition of the Council Learned, the cancellation of many of the bonds and recognizances which the Council Learned had imposed, and the executions of Empson and Dudley.
Henry’s key aims in the first year of his reign?
-to establish his status amongst European monarchs through marriage.
-to re-establish the role of the nobility
-to establish himself as a warrior king through success in battle.
Henry’s marriage to Catherine of Aragon.
Henry and Catherine married on 11 June 1509.
Catherine exercised some influence over policy making in the first few years.
By the mid-1520s Henry would repent of the rapidity of his marriage to a woman who was 5 years older than himself, especially once it was clear that she could never present him with a healthy heir.
Re-establishing the nobility.
The nobility was largely frozen out of direct political influence by Henry VII. Henry VIII shared the same taste and dominantly military culture of the aristocracy. It was the young men who joined Henry in sports and revels (AKA the sons of nobility), who accompanied Henry to war in northern France.
However, the nobility did not achieve political dominance in the end because Henry promoted Wolsey.
Henry’s later aims:
He didn’t have consistent aims throughout his reign.
-the pursuit of glory/ the need to secure the succession to the throne.
-prioritised himself over the government.
-The broadening of the use of statute law (acts of parliament) to achieve political ends.
-The resulting growing importance of Parliament.
-The destruction of traditional religion.
-The plundering of much of the Church’s wealth.
How many parliaments were called during Henry’s reign and why?
9
At the beginning of his reign, the use of parliament followed the pattern of his father- the primary reason for calling parliament was to secure revenue.
Wolsey was reluctant to use parliament.
Cromwell exploited its legislative possibilities much more thoroughly. Consequently, parliament was called much more frequently in the second half of Henry’s reign.
What factors caused the ending of the conciliar approach to government?
-Henry became disenchanted with the reluctance of some of his father’s senior councillors to support a war with France.
-As he became more attuned to governing, he became increasingly his own man by asserting his undoubted right to control decision-making.
-Henry surrounded himself with like-minded young courtiers who reinforced his suspicions of the ‘old guard’.
-He became particularly impressed by the organisational skills of Thomas Wolsey, whose contribution to the effective management of the French campaign earned him royal gratitude.
Henry VIII’s attitude towards religion through his reign-
Traditional but innovative.
What treaty did Henry renew in 1510?
Treaty of Etaples.
Who and what was the Holy League?
England, Spain, HRE, Venice and The Papacy in an anti-french alliance.
When was the battle of Flodden?
September 1513.
What battle did Henry win in 1513?
(1)
Battle of Spurs- he used propaganda to portray this as a mighty victory when in reality it was a little skirmish.
What towns did Henry capture after Battle of Spurs?
Therouanne and Tournai
What happened at the battle of Flodden?
James IV of Scotland was killed along with the Scottish nobility.
This left the throne in the hands of infant James V.
What was gained from Henry’s military adventures of 1513?
Nothing.
-Very costly, he had to liquidate assets from his father to pay for it.
-There were rumblings about taxation in Yorkshire which narrowly avoided a revolution.
-The renegotiated French pension was lost.
-Tournai was sold back to the French for less than the English had spent to repair its defences.
Who were the main players in foreign relations?
Spain- Death of Ferdinand, 1516- Charles I
Scotland- Death of James IV 1513-Infant James V
France- Death of Louis XII, 1515-Francis I
HRE- Death of Maximilian, 1519- Charles V
Burgundy- The duchy was passed to the Hapsburgs in 1477; it consisted of commercially important areas (now Belgium and Netherlands).
3 points on the basis of H8 and Wolsey’s policy from 1514 and 1526-
- England remained a minor power and could not compete with that of Spain and France.
- Henry overestimated England’s power - Wolsey had to frame the details of foreign policy based on that assumption.
- The ‘auld alliance’ between France and Spain remained strong.
2 major consequences of Henry running out of money by the end of 1514 to continue a warlike foreign policy-
- He was unable to exploit the weakness of Scotland after the death of James IV at Flodden.
- He sought peace with France- reinforced by the marriage of his sister Mary to the French King Louis XII.
What was the difference in H’s foreign policy between the 30s and 40s?
30s- The focus of foreign policy had been to minimise the response of foreign powers to the break from Rome.
40s- Henry returned to the aggressive foreign policy which had characterised the early years of his reign, launching attacks on both Scotland and France.
Scotland 1542.
Battle of Solway Moss.
England’s invasion of Scotland met immediate military success- Scots were forced into action by being faced with demands they could not have possibly met.
Scots were heavily defeated at the Battle of Solway Moss.
King James V died shortly after leaving the throne to his week-old daughter, Mary.
Scottish position- homeless.
Why did Henry not invade Scotland?
Henry’s main interest was an invasion of France, he looked primarily to diplomatic pressure as a means to secure his Scottish objectives, while he sought military glory in France.
Treaty of Greenwich 1543.
Formally betrothed Scottish Prince Edward to Mary, but the Scots were unhappy with H’s request to raise Mary in England.
Earl of Arran (Scot) refused to ratify the treaty.
This prompted H to order the Earl of Hertford to carry out a raid on Edinburgh, Leith and St Andrews.
Criticism of Henry’s failure of Scottish foreign policy:
-He neglected the opportunity to secure his policy Scottish policy by military force when he had the opportunity in 1542.
-He failed to heed Sadler’s warnings about Scottish hostility to his intentions.
-His ordering of Hertford into Scotland was simply a matter of retaliation. This gave no thought to possible strategic objectives and simply served to antagonise the Scots further.
Henrys French foreign policy.
H agreed to an alliance with the emperor to facilitate the French invasion.
H’s main concern was the size of the French army.
Although H typically gave little thought to strategic objectives, he realised he couldn’t just march into Paris.
English army in Calais, besieging Montreuil unsuccessfully but capturing Bolougne.
Henry’s French foreign policy.
Matters worse in 1545.
-Francis I sent troops to Scotland to reinforce a possible invasion of England from across the Scottish border.
-English were defeated at the Battle of Ancrum Moor.
-A separate French force landed on the Isle of Wight.
-H’s flagship, the Mary Rose, sank in the Solent.
What did England and France agree to in 1546? Why?
The French failed to recapture Bolougne and the invasion of N England never happened.
Both sued for peace as they couldn’t afford conflict.
Peace was agreed in 1546.
Henry’s spending in his pursuit of glory, France 1544-46.
He was unable to fund the war from extraordinary revenue, resold much of the Crown estate, borrowed large sums and debased coinage- increasing inflation.
Succession act of 1534.
Anne Boleyn gave birth to Elizabeth in September 1533. Elizabeth’s position as heir presumptive was confirmed by the Succession Act 1534, which declared Mary illegitimate.
Succession act of 1536.
Anne Boleyn’s execution for treason declared Elizabeth illegitimate.
Henry now had no legitimate heir but three illegitimate children.
Succession act of 1536.
(Richmond)
Laying down that, in the absence of a legitimate heir, the king could determine the succession by will or by letters patent.
This theoretically could have led to Richmond’s succession if he didn’t die! LOL
Henry’s 1st legitimate male heir.
Edward was born of Lady Jane Seymour whom he married after the deaths of Catherine and Anne, meaning Edwards’s legitimacy could not be denied.
Why was Henry anxious about the succession/ Edward?
By 1543 problems with Henry’s health made it likely Edward would take over the throne as a minor.
Succession act of 1543/44.
Re-legitimised Mary and Elizabeth, also reaffirming Henry’s right to determine the succession by letter patent or will.
Nobility- the size of peerage.
Increased during H’s reign, though by the end, there were only 9 more than what they started with.
Most new peers achieved their rank by successful royal service as courtiers or soldiers, or in some cases, this was enhanced by a close family relationship- H’s brother-in-law Edward Seymore was elevated to the Earl of Hertford.
Nobility- Dukes.
Only 1 duke when H became king, Edward Stafford, Duke of Buckingham, never enjoyed royal favour.
H only promoted 2 non-royal ducal titles, Norfolk and Suffolk- served as soldiers and courtiers.
Norfolk was restored the title which had been his father’s, and Suffolk was promoted due to closeness with H.
Nobility- giving out property.
H sometimes gave out property to give them royal authority in particular areas.
Suffolk was endowed with property in Lincolnshire after the rebellion and was told to move there to exert authority over them.
The gentry- how many?
John Guy has suggested there were approx 5000 gentry families in England in 1540.
The gentry- Knighthood.
Knighthhods were a sign of royal favour and it was presumed their income would match their status.
Susan Birgden estimated there were about 200 knightly families in 1524.
The gentry- Gentlemen.
Gentlemen who were allowed to bear a coat of arms were deemed as an ‘esquire’. Status was certified by the royal heralds.
By 1530 heralds were unwilling to grant/ confirm the titles to anyone whose lands were worth less than £10 per annum or goods worth under £300.
The gentry- JPs
The increased number of justices of the peace increased the number of those who participated in local administration.
As well as JPs many members of the gentry were drawn to unpaid administration on behalf of the crown.
Commoners-
There was little dramatic change in the living of commoners during the first 1/2 of H’s reign.
Inflation rising meant people were paid less.
Regional issues- Wales.
Before 1536 Wales was a separate territory from England yet under English control. Wales compromised marcher (border) lordships and the Principality of Wales.
Laws of Wales Act 1536:
-divided Wales into shire counties which operated on the same basis as their English counterparts.
-gave the Welsh shires direct representation in the House of Commons at Westminster for the 1st time.
-brought Wales into the same legal framework as England.
Regional issues- English palatinates
3 English counties were technically palatinates (separate jurisdictions): Lancashire, Cheshire, and Durham.
Mattered little in Chesire and Lancashire where jurisdiction fell back into royal hands, but Durham was still technically separate.
The Act of Resuming Liberties to the Crown of 1536 reduced the level of independence for the Bishop of Durham but did not destroy it completely.
Border admin- Anglo-Welsh
The lands were governed as part of the Principality of Wales, along with the 4 bordering counties- Shropshire, Herefordshire, Worcestershire and Gloucestershire, which came under the jurisdiction of the Council of Wales. Offered relatively cheap and local access to the law and could therefore benefit the area under its jurisdiction.
Border admin- Anglo-Scottish
Problematic area for H.
The border with Scotland was difficult to police. Both sides of the border had a rep for unlawfulness.
Border of Scot was split into three marches, each under the jurisdiction of a warden. H struggled to appoint wardens due to people exploiting power.
The council of the north.
H and Cromwell re-establish the council as a permanent body in York with professional staff.
Administrative and legal functions.
Henry’s break from Rome- reactions.
A small minority of people welcomed the change, but there was not a lot of support for the changes.
Executions- Sir Thomas More.
Monasteries- pre-reformation of the Church.
Cromwell’s dissolution of the monasteries, begun in 1536, and his royal injunctions of 1536, attacked many of the traditional Catholic practices. This provoked fears that the reforms may be accompanied by an attack on parish churches.
Religious upheaval- social consequences.
-A lot of land was removed from the Church and taken by the crown- should have made H more powerful but due to his warlike FP, he had to sell a lot of church and monastic property. By 1547 2/3s of the monastic land gained by the crown had been sold.
-Removal of monasteries had led to the loss of schools.
-Many monks and nuns were unemployed.
-Monasteries offered employment, education and business opportunities.
