Henry VII Flashcards
1
Q
When was the battle of Bosworth ?
A
22nd August 1485
2
Q
How was H7 claim weak ?
A
- he descended through the female line - mother Margaret Beauford
- John of Gaunts 3rd son and Margarets father was illegitimate as he was born before John of Gaunt was married
3
Q
Who was he proclaimed king by ?
A
Lord Stanley
4
Q
H7 lived abroad since he was ?
A
14
5
Q
What helped the public accept him ?
A
he was not Richard who suspicions were building against
6
Q
Why did H7 have to flee to France when he was 14 ?
A
Battle of Tewkesbury - Yorkist took power and many Lancastrians died or were executed
7
Q
What was H7 primary aim at the start of his reign ?
A
consolidate his power
8
Q
How did H7 consolidate his power ?
A
- dated reign day before Bosworth 21st august - yorkists = traitors
- rewarded key supporters 11 knighthoods
- detained Earl of Warwick as he had a greater claim to throne
- he made key appointments to council and household - Sir Reginald Bray Chancellor of the Duchy of Lancaster and Sir William Stanley Chamberlain of the Household
- coronation on 30th Oct before first meeting of parliament - right to throne hereditary not only due to parliamentary sanction
- acts of attainders against Yorkists who fought at Bosworth - forfeiting their property to the Crown
- January 1486 - married Elizabeth of York - propaganda of union
- September 1486 - birth of an heir Prince Arthur
9
Q
What was the first rising against H7 ?
A
Viscount Lovell and the Staffords, 1486
10
Q
Who was Viscount Lovell a supporter of ?
A
Richard 3rd
11
Q
Where did Lovell try to raise a rebellion ?
A
in the North Riding of Yorkshire where R3 had most support
12
Q
Where did Stafford try to raise forces against H7 ?
A
an area of Yorkist support in the Midlands
13
Q
What happened to Lovell ?
A
he escaped from the kings forces
14
Q
What happened to the Staffords
A
Humphrey Stafford was executed and Thomas his younger brother/accomplice was pardoned
15
Q
Did the attempted rebellion by Viscount Lovell and the Staffords create problems for H7 ?
A
no it was easily suppressed and there was little enthusiasm for it even in Yorkist traditional heartlands
16
Q
What did Lambert Simnel and the rebellion of the Earl of Lincoln do different to Viscount Lovell and the Staffords ?
A
they recognised the need for a figurehead who could claim to be a Yorkist prince and financial support
17
Q
Who was Lambert Simnel being passed of as to create a figurehead ?
A
the Earl of Warwick
18
Q
In reality where was the Earl of Warwick ?
A
he had been imprisoned by H7
19
Q
What did Lambert Simnel achieve as the Earl of Warwick ?
A
he was crowned as King Edward in Ireland in May 1487
20
Q
Who created the Lambert Simnel/ Earl of Warwick conspiracy ?
A
John de la Pole, the Earl of Lincoln
21
Q
How did H7 respond to the Earl of Warwick hoax ?
A
he had the real Earl of Warwick exhibited in London
22
Q
What did the Earl of Lincoln do after his hoax was uncovered ?
A
he fled from H7’s court and joined Lord Lovell at the court of Margaret of Burgundy in the Netherlands
23
Q
What did Lincoln and Lovell persuade Margaret of Burgundy to do ?
A
support Simnels fake claim and pay for a force of mercenaries to invade England
24
Q
What did H7 do to prepare for Margaret of Burgundies mercenaries?
A
- reinstated an untrustworthy Earl of Northumberland in North to neutralise R3’s old power base and ensure the traditionally Yorkist Howard family didn’t join the conspiracy
- reinforced coastal defences in East Anglia
25
Where did Margaret of Burgundies rebels land ?
Cumberland
26
Where did the rebels travel to ?
they crossed the pennines to gather support for R3 in the North Riding of Yorkshire
27
How did the Yorkist gentry of North Riding react to the rebels ?
reluctant to commit themselves to the cause
28
When was the Battle of Stoke Field ?
1487
29
during the Battle of Stoke Field where did the two armies meet ?
East Stoke near Newark in Nottinghamshire
30
How did H7 feel before the Battle of Stoke Field ?
not confident - he feared he might to be double crossed like R3 at Bosworth
31
Who was H7's army led by during the Battle of Stoke Field in 1487 ?
Earl of Oxford
32
Who was killed during the Battle of Stoke Field ?
the Earl of Lincoln
33
Why was the Earl of Lincoln unsuccessful ?
he had been unable to add enough followers to the army of mercenaries
34
What did the Battle of Stoke Field do for H7 ?
it made his position safer
35
How did H7 treat the rebels at the Battle of Stoke Field ?
relatively mildly - resulting in him winning over some Yorkists who opposed him
36
What policy did H7 develop after the 1487 Battle of Stoke Field ?
bonds of good behaviour
37
What were bonds of good behaviour?
H7 gave bonds to landowners and the sum didn't have to be paid back provided they showed good behaviour. If this condition was broken the sum had to be paid
38
Where was Perkin Warbeck from ?
he was a cloth trader from Tournai in Flanders
39
What made Perkin Warbeck a serious threat ?
his ability to attract patronage from foreign rules
40
What did foreign rulers giving patronage to Perkin Warbeck demonstrate ?
the fragility of his rule to other rulers
41
When did Perkin Warbeck begin to impersonate R3 in Ireland ?
1491
42
Where was Perkin Warbeck trained as a potential Yorkist prince ?
Netherlands in the court of Margaret of Burgundy
43
When was Warbeck's first attempt in landing in England ?
1495
44
Why was Warbeck's first attempt to land in England a failure ?
H7 had been informed of his intentions by a royal agent, Sir Robert Clifford,
45
What did Warbeck do after H7 found out his intentions of landing in England ?
he was defeated and fled to Scotland under the court of James IV
46
Why could have Warbecks first attempt to come into England proved costly for H7 ?
conspirators had an accomplice in H7's government, Sir William Stanley
47
When did a small Scottish force cross the boarder on Warbeck's behalf ?
1496
48
How where Warbeck's interests sacrificed by the Scottish government ?
James IV gave in to H7's offer of marriage to his daughter, Margaret
49
What was Warbeck's final attempt to seek the English throne ?
he tried to exploit the uncertainties created by the Cornish Rebellion in 1497 but his forces were crushed and he had to surrender to the king
50
When was the Cornish Rebellion ?
1497
51
How did H7 punish Warbeck ?
at first he allowed him to stay at court but confined him to the tower after he tried to abscond. But after he allegedly tried to escape with Warwick he was accused of treason and tried and executed in 1499
52
What happened to the Earl of Warwick in 1499 ?
he allegedly tried to escape the tower with Warbeck and was tried and beheaded for treason
53
How old was Warwick during the battle of bosworth ?
10
54
Who did H7's final piece of dynastic security concern ?
- Edmund de la Pole
- Earl of Suffolk
- Richard de la Pole
55
When did the Earl of Suffolk first flee and to where ?
1498 to Flanders
56
When did Suffolk flee for the 2nd time and to where ?
1501 to the court of the Emperor Maximilian
57
What ensured Suffolks safety ?
for as long as Margaret of Burgundy was politically opposed to H7
58
What treaty restored friendly relations between Margaret of Burgundy and H7 ?
Treaty of Windsor in 1506
59
What did the Treaty of Windsor mean to Suffolk ?
Maximilian agreed to give him up and he was imprisoned in the tower of London
60
When was the Earl of Suffolk executed and by who?
1513 by H8
61
What was Richard de la Pole's nickname ?
'White Rose'
62
When was Richard de la Pole 'White Rose' killed ?
fighting for French forces at the Battle of Pavia in 1525
63
What is a magnate ?
a member of the higher ranks of the nobility
64
Who was Sir Reginald Bray ?
- faithful servant of H7
- helped raise funds before Battle of Bosworth
- Chancellor of the Duchy of Lancaster under H7
- led the council learned in law
65
How did the council under H7 work ?
it had no established rules and procedures despite it being a permanent body with core membership
66
Who was a part of the Great Council?
it was a meeting of the House of Lords NOT commons
67
What kind of body was the Great Council ?
occasional not permanent
68
How many times did the Great Council meet throughout H7's reign?
5 times
69
What concerned the Great Council ?
wars or rebellions
70
Under whose leadership did the council learned develop ?
Sir Reginald Brays
71
Where did the council learned often meet ?
in the office of the Duchy of Lancaster
72
What was the Council learned's function ?
to maintain the king's revenue and to exploit his prerogative rights
73
Who created the system of bonds and recognisances ?
the council learned
74
What was the Council learned an expression of ?
the kings will
75
Why was the Council learned important ?
it was importance for the maintenance of H7 authority and for raising finance
76
Who was Sir Reginald Bray's associate in the Council Learned ?
Richard Empson
77
When did Sir Reginald Bray die ?
1503
78
Who was Richard Empson joined by in the council learned ?
Edmund Dudley
79
Who did Richard Empson and Edmund Dudley create enemies of and why ?
some of the kings other advisors: Bishop Fox, Sir Thomas Lovell etc.
because of their extraction of money
80
What did Empson and Dudley's enemies do after H7's death ?
removed them
81
What did it mean to have a personal monarchy ?
the political power and influence of an individual depended more on the relationship that person had with the monarch than on any specific office which they might have held
82
What were the 2 levels of court:
- household proper ( responsible for looking after king)
- political part ( chamber )
83
Who was the Chamber presided over by ?
the Lord Chamberlain
84
What did the Privy Chamber do ?
gave the king a place to retreat and be protected by his most intimate servants
85
Why did H7 create the privy chamber ?
the betrayal in court by Sir William Stanley
86
What did the Privy Chamber make it harder to do ?
for those who were out of the kings favour to gain his support
87
Two main functions of parliament :
- pass law
- grant taxation
88
What did the House of Lords comprise of ?
the Lords Spiritual and Lords Temporal
89
Which was more important the House of Lords or Commons ?
the House of Lords
90
What did the House of Commons comprise of ?
- two MPs for each county
- two MPs for each borough
- representatives of the two universities
91
How many parliaments did H7 call throughout his reign ?
7
92
How many of H7 parliaments met in the first 10 years ?
5
93
What were H7's early parliaments concerned with ?
national security and raising revenue
94
What did fifteenths and tenths make from the years 1487- 1497 ?
203,000
95
When was H7's final parliament ?
1504
96
What did H7 final parliament in 1504 limit ?
the demand for extraordinary revenue
97
How many times a year did JPs meet?
4
98
What were most JPs ?
local gentry who fulfilled their unpaid tasks either out of a sense of duty or because they perceived doing so might open up the path to greater advancement or local prestige
99
What were JPs responsible for ?
routine administration such as: tax assessment, alehouse regulation, the investigation of complaints against local officials, and the maintenance of law and order
100
What were two things H7 used bonds and recognisances to do ?
- repay genuine debts to the crown
- enforce order and obedience politically
101
What were all the sources of royal income under H7 ?
- crown lands
- profits from feudal dues and the exercise of royal prerogative
- customs revenue
- pensions from other powers
- profits of justice
- extraordinary revenue
102
How did H7 get money from crown lands ?
rental income from property
103
What was H7s income through crown lands at the beginning of his reign ?
about 12,000
104
Why was income from crown lands so low at the beginning of his reign ?
inefficient Court of Exchequer
shows H7 financial inexperience
105
How did the income of Crown lands change in 1492 ?
he reverted back to doing it through the chamber
106
What was the annual income from crown lands by the end of 1492 ?
42,000
107
When did parliament grant a feudal aid ?
1504
108
What is a feudal aid ?
a right by which the crown could impose a tax on their tenants for the knighting of their eldest son, the marriage of eldest daughter or to ransom a lord
109
What is a wardship ?
an aspect of the feudal system which enabled the Crown to gain the profits from property held by a minor
110
What is the Statute of Uses ?
a law passed to prevent landed property from being turned into trusts - mechanisms for avoiding paying tax on a deceased persons estate.
111
What was the increased of customs revenue throughout H7's reign ?
from 34,000 to 38,000
112
When in H7's reign did he get a pension from another power ?
Treaty of Etaples with France in 1492 - 5,000 annually
113
What did profits of justice include ?
income from bonds and fines
114
How much did H7 receive through extraordinary taxation ?
400,000
115
What did taxation through extraordinary revenue cause in H7's reign ?
rebellions in 1489 and 1497
116
How much did H7 leave after he died?
300,000 in plate and jewels and 10,000 in cash
117
Who were the main victims of H7's policies ?
landowners
118
What were H7's FP aims :
to ensure national security, recognition of the Tudor dynasty, defence of English trading interests
119
What is suzerainty ?
the feudal control of one territory by another
120
When did France invade Brittany ?
1487
121
What did a possibility that France would gain control of Brittany do to H ?
made him summon parliament to grant him extraordinary revenue to raise an army against the French
122
What were his reasons for raising an army against the French ?
- sense of obligation
- fear that French control over Brittany could increase French threat to England
123
When was the Treaty of Redon agreed ?
Feb 1489
124
What did the Treaty of Redon entail?
Duchess Anne would pay for a small English army to defend Brittany from the French threat
125
What caused an alliance between Maximilian and H7 when the treaty of Redon was signed ?
Maximilian has contracted a marriage-by-proxy with Anne so he had no desire for her to fall into French hands
126
What is a marriage-by-proxy ?
one or both individuals are not present but represented by another person
127
What years were the Hundred Years War between and who was a part of it ?
1337-1453
between France and England
128
When did Maximilian I become HRE?
1493
129
When did Isabella of Ferdinand die?
1504
130
What was the position of Ireland during this time ?
there was no separate Irish state
131
What did the Duchy Anne do ?
reluctantly married Charles XIII
132
What did Anne and C XIII marriage do ?
left English army marooned in Brittany and made Maximilian lose interest
made worse by Warbeck seeking French backing
133
How did H7 recover his position created by the Treaty of Redon in 1489 ?
he launched a French invasion in 1492
resulting in the French seeking a peace settlement - Treaty of Etaples in 1492
134
What year was the Treaty of Etaples?
1492
135
Why was Charles XIII so quick to sign the Treaty of Etaples ?
he was much more interested in launching an invasion on italy
136
What did the Treaty of Etaples entail?
- peace
- withdrawn support for Perkin Warbeck
- pension to Henry for the expense of recruiting an army for invasion
137
Why was the Treaty of Etaples a success for H7 ?
he improved his financial position and ensured a period of cordial relations with France
138
Where did most of English exports go through ?
Netherlands ( Antwerp, Bruges )
139
Who was Margaret of Burgundy ?
Richard III's sister
140
Why did English and Burgundy relations deteriorate ?
because of hospitality Maximilian and Philip offered Warbeck
141
What did Henry do as a result of Burgundy giving Warbeck hospitality?
put an embargo on English trade with Burgundy
142
What problems did the Burgundy trade embargo cause ?
it threatened two of H7's FP aims to secure dynasty and encourage trade
143
When did Burgundy and English relations improve ?
when Warbeck left Burgundy
144
When was the Intercursus Magnus ?
1496
145
What did the Intercursus Magnus do?
brought the trade embargo to an end
146
Intercursus Malus ?
trade agreement in 1506 which never became fully operational
147
When was the Treaty Medina del Campo ?
1489
148
What did Medina del Campo state ?
- mutual protection
- agreement not to harbour rebels or pretenders
- marriage alliance between Arthur and Catherine
149
Problems with Medina del Camp:
- royal marriage didn't go smoothly
- Ferdinand was reluctant for marriage as long as H7's stability was threatened by Warbeck
- they argued over the size of Catherines dowry
150
When were the details of Arthurs and Catherines marriage agreed ?
1499
151
When did Prince Arthur die ?
1502
152
How did Arthurs death create problems ?
- H7 tried to suggest a marriage with Prince Henry but Ferdinand reluctant as that would require papal dispensation
153
Why did Henry lose interest in marriage alliance with Spain ?
death of Isabella in 1504 made Ferdinand a less significant political figure
154
When did Prince Arthur and Princess Catherine get married ?
1501
155
What did Philip of Burgundies death do to H7 ?
left him isolated after the Treaty if Windsor in 1506 with him and Juana
156
When was the Cornish Rebellion ?
1497
157
What was the Cornish Rebellion ?
large scale rebellion
158
What called the end to the Cornish Rebellion ?
Treaty of Ayton in 1497
159
When was the Treaty of Perpetual Peace ?
1502
160
What did the Treaty of Perpetual Peace state ?
a peace treaty agreeing the marriage of James and Princess Margaret
161
When was James IV's and Margarets marriage ?
1503
162
Where did H7's power in Ireland extend to ?
the pale - area of land surrounding Dublin
163
Who were the two most important families in Ireland ?
- Fitzgeralds (Geraldines)
- Butlers
164
Who was the Earl of Kildare ?
- led Geraldines
- lord deputy of Ireland since 1477
- supported Lambert Simnel in 1486 and Warbeck in 1491
165
What did Kildare's Yorkist tendencies force H7 to do ?
- began to rule the 'Pale' through an Englishman backed by armed forces
- appointed son Henry as Lieutenant of Ireland - Sir Edward Poynings as deputy
166
When were 'Poynings' Laws created ?
1495
167
What did the 'Poyning' Laws state ?
Irish parliament could pass no law without English approval - also attempted to implement English Law
168
What was the problem with Sir Edward Poyning's strategy ?
expensive - resulted in H7 being forced to recall him and yet again depend on Kildare
169
What were Kildare's political views by 1496 ?
he decided there was no benefit in supporting the Yorkist cause and decided to serve H7 loyally
170
What also made Kildare eager to retain his position ?
he could use it to rebuild his family fortune
171
When was Prince Henry born ?
1491
172
Where did Arthur set up his own court ?
Ludlow in Shropshire
173
H7 four children:
- Arthur
- Henry
- Mary
- Margaret
174
Who did H7 fear may launch an attempt to seize the throne ?
Duke of Buckingham, Edward III descendant
175
When did H7 die ?
21st April 1509
and it was announced on the 23rd
176
Why did H7 fail to re-marry ?
partly because princesses concerned proved reluctant and partly because he had lost interest in the idea
177
When did Elizabeth of York die ?
11th Feb 1503
178
What was retaining ?
wealthy magnates recruited knights and gentlemen to serve them as administrators or accountants or military purposes - noblemen used them to bring unlawful influence on others in court cases of use them against the crown
179
How many peers and MPs were required to take an oath against illegal retaining or being illegally retained ?
1486
180
When was a law against retaining established ?
1487
181
When was the 1487 law against retaining reinforced ?
1504 - in which licences for retaining could be sought
182
How many knights were there in 1490 ?
about 500 knights
183
How to identify the greater gentry :
- possession of a knighthood
- authentic coat of arms
- considerable income
- courtly connections
- country residence
- considerable social prestige
184
Most important clergymen of H7's reign :
- John Morton
- Richard Fox
185
Why did the population decline between 1348 and 49 ?
the black death
186
What did the Black death cause among commoners ?
'peasant aristocracy'
187
What does grazing rights mean ?
a legal term referring to the right of a user to allow their livestock to graze in a given area
188
What did real wages do in the second half of the fifteenth century ?
increase
189
When did inflationary pressures appear more evident ?
end of 15th century
190
What was the subsistence crisis and how did it effect England ?
it was when harvest failure raised food prices to such an extent that significant numbers of the poor died from starvation
England largely avoided the crisis
191
What was the main catalyst of rebellion in H7 reign ?
taxation
192
What caused the Yorkshire rebellion of 1489 ?
resentment of the taxation granted by parliament in 1489 in order to finance the campaign in brittany
193
Why was the Yorkshire rebellion of 1489 notorious ?
rebels murdered the Earl of Northumberland in April 1489
194
What caused the Cornish Rebellion in 1497 ?
demand for extraordinary revenue to finance a campaign in Scotland
195
Why did the Cornish Rebellion cause a threat to the stability of H7's rule ?
- many involved ( around 15,000)
- the attempt to exploit the rebellion made by perkin warbeck
- rebels marched all the way to London without being stopped - were Crowns systems for maintaining order in countryside effective
196
Why did suppressing the Cornish rebellion create a problem for H7 ?
in order to do it he had to withdraw troops from defending Scottish border
in end crushed easily by Daubeney
197
What did Henry do to leaders and participants of the Cornish rebellion in 1497 ?
he only executed the leaders
198
In urban areas what were the main industries ?
wool and cloth
199
What happened to income from land after the Black Death ?
it declined
200
When was there a greater move towards sheep farming and why ?
in 1480s and 90s
it became more profitable as there was an increased demand for wool as the population grew and trade overseas developed
201
What was the consequence of sheep farming ?
it came at the cost of peasants who lost their access to land and common rights, often leaving them destitute
202
What % of English exports were due to cloth trade ?
about 90%
60% increase in H7's reign
203
Where was cloth mainly shipped from ?
east coast ports and exported through Calais by the Merchants of the Staple
204
What did increased cloth lead to ?
commercial enterprises such as dyeing and weaving - rural employment
205
When were the Merchant Adventurers founded ?
1407 by members of the Mercers' Company
206
What is the Mercers' Company?
wealthiest most influential company in London - they also founded the Merchant Adventurers
207
What did the Merchant Adventurers dominante ?
Cloth trade with Antwerp
208
Who dominated the wool trade ?
the Merchants of the Staple
209
How did the King use the Merchant Adventurers ?
in negotiating trading treaties such as the Intercursus Magnus and Malus
210
Why could the Merchant Adventurers not completely dominate trade ?
could not overcome the trading privileges enjoyed by the Hanseatic League
211
When were the Hanseatic Leagues trading privileges reasserted ?
1474 and 1504
H7 did this to ensure the Hanseatic League would not support the Yorkist claimant to the throne Earl of Suffolk
sacrifices English commercial interests
212
Other industries in England ?
remained small and couldn't compete with foreign competitors
213
What did H7 see as more important revenue or dynastic security ?
dynastic security as he was willing to sacrifice revenue
214
When did H7 impose the trade embargo with the Netherlands ?
1493
215
When was Intercusus Magnus confirmed ?
1499
216
Where was the Hanseatic League largely successful in limiting English trade development ?
the Baltic
217
What did the Navigation Acts of 1485 and 1489 encourage ?
English shipping by trying to ensure the only English ships should carry certain products to and from English ports
limited usefulness as foreign vessels continued to transport a substantial proportion of English exports
218
John Cabot :
sailed in 1497 and located Newfoundland reporting existence of extensive fishing grounds
following year he set off again but never returned
219
Sebastian Cabot :
received a sponsorship and led an unsuccessful attempt to find the 'north-west passage' to Asia in 1508
220
What were guilds and confraternities?
voluntary associations of individuals created to promote works of Christian charity or devotion
221
What did guilds and confraternities offer ?
charity, good fellowship and the chance for ordinary people to contribute to the local community
222
How did the Church make it easier for social and political elites to maintain control ?
the Church encouraged good behaviour, obedience and put stress on the value of communities
also provided employment opportunities - Cardinal Wolsey used this
223
What was the relationship between the Church and the State ?
Erastian
224
What does Erastian mean ?
the view that the state should have authority over the Church
225
What is a diocese ?
an area under the pastoral care of a bishop in the Christian Church
226
What two provinces was the Church administered through ?
Canterbury and York
which were each under the jurisdiction of an archbishop and seventeen diocese each under the control of a bishop
227
Who were the abbots ?
head of the wealthiest religious households - shared membership of the House of Lords with the bishops
228
What are the seven sacraments ?
- Baptism
- confirmation
- marriage
- anointing the sick
- penance
- holy orders
- eucharist
229
Why was mass important :
- sacrifice performed on behalf of the community
- sacred ritual that the whole community participated in
230
Where would benefactors leave their money ?
the foundation of chantries
231
What are chantries ?
chapels were masses for the souls of the dead took place
232
What were confraternities ?
groups of men ( sometimes women ) who gathered usually in association with the parish church to provide collectively for the funeral costs of members, to make charitable donations and socialise
233
Other religious experiences within a parish :
- pilgrimages
- carrying banners around to ward of evil spirits and reinforce parish property
234
What % of adult males were monks by 1500 ?
1%
235
How many religious communities ( monastries ) could be found all over the country ?
900
236
Nunneries in H7's reign :
- much less prestige
- mostly populated by women deemed unsuitable for marriage
-relatively poor
237
What is heresy ?
the denial of the validity of key doctrines of the Church
238
anticlericalism ?
opposition to the Church's role in political and other non-religious matters
239
what is laity ?
refers collectively to those who were neither priests nor members of a religious order
240
How many new grammar schools were founded between 1460 and 1509 ?
53
241
What approach did the 1480s see the beginning of ?
humanism
242
What was the most important art form in this period ?
drama - theatre
243
What did theatre productions portray message wise >
straightforward moral and religious messages for the moral improvement of the audience
244
What is the most important surviving source of music in H7 reign ?
the Eton Choirbook
245
Where was music performed ?
at court or the homes of the wealthy
246
Examples of humanist scholars ?
- Erasmus
- John Colet
- Thomas More
247
