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GCSE CCEA Biology unit 2 And 3 > Health, Disease, Defence Mechanisms And Treatments > Flashcards

Health, Disease, Defence Mechanisms And Treatments Flashcards

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1
Q

What is a microorganism? (2)

A
  • microscopic organism or viral structure
  • can be beneficial or harmful
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2
Q

What is a pathogen?

A

A microscopic organism or virus that causes a disease

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3
Q

What is a virus?

A

A non-living infectious agent that:

  • invades and then
  • replicates inside living cells
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4
Q

What is a bacterium?

A

A single-celled organism that doesn’t contain a nucleus and is capable of causing disease

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5
Q

How are bacteria structured?

A
  • (peptidoglycan) cell wall
  • cell membrane
  • cytoplasm
  • plasmids
  • single chromosome
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6
Q

what are communicable diseases?

A

Diseases that can be passed from one organism to another

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7
Q

what are non-communicable diseases?

A

Diseases that cannot be passed from one organism to another

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8
Q

what is health? (2)

A

When someone is free from

  • communicable and
  • non-communicable disease
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9
Q

What type of microorganism is Chlamydia?

How is it spread?

How is it prevented / treated?

A
  • bacteria
  • sexual contact
    1. condoms for prevention
    2. Antibiotics for treatment
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10
Q

What type of microorganism is salmonella?

How is it spread?

How is it prevented / treated?

A
  • bacterium
  • contaminated food
    1. Cooking food thoroughly (prevention)
    2. Not mixing cooked and uncooked foods (prevention)
    3. Antibiotics (treatment
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11
Q

What type of microorganism is tuberculosis?

How is it spread?

How is it prevented / treated?

A
  • bacterium
  • airborne - by water droplets
  • treated with drugs and antibiotics
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12
Q

What type of microorganism is HIV?

How is it spread?

How is it prevented / treated?

A
  • virus
    1. Infected blood
    2. Exchange of bodily fluids during sex
    1. Prevented by condoms
    2. Prevented by letting addicts use separate needles
    3. Controlled by drugs
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13
Q

What type of microorganism are the cold & flu?

How is it spread?

How is it prevented / treated?

A
  • virus
  • airborne - by water droplets
  • prevented by vaccination for targeted groups
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14
Q

What type of microorganism is HPV?

How is it spread?

How is it prevented / treated?

A
  • virus
  • sexual contact
  • vaccination given to teenagers
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15
Q

What type of microorganism is athlete’s foot?

How is it spread?

How is it prevented / treated?

A
  • fungus
  • contact
    1. prevented by avoiding contact with surfaces likely to have spores - e.g. wear flip flops at a pool
    2. Treated with anti fungal creams
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16
Q

What type of microorganism is potato blight?

How is it spread?

How is it prevented / treated?

A
  • fungus
  • spores in air
  • prevented by crop rotation and spraying plants with a fungicide
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17
Q

What is the body’s first lines of defence against infection?

Explain how each work (3)

A
  1. The skin - a barrier between pathogens and the blood
  2. Mucous membranes - secrete mucous which traps pathogens to be wafted out by cilia
  3. Blood clotting - barrier between blood and pathogens when wounds emerge
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18
Q

What is the body’s second line of defence against infection?

A

The bloodstream - specifically white blood cells (Lymphocytes and Phagocytes)

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19
Q

What is an antibody? (2)

A
  • A structure produced by lymphocytes
  • that has a complementary shape (and can attach to) the antigens on a particular microorganism
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20
Q

What is an antigen? (2)

A
  • A distinctive marker on a microorganism
  • that leads to the body producing specific antibodies
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21
Q

what is the primary response to infection in the blood? (2)

A
  • antibody levels slowly increase after infection (illness shows)
  • memory lymphocytes are produced
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22
Q

what is the secondary response to infection in the blood? (2)

A
  • memory lymphocytes trigger release of antibodies when known antigen enters bloodstream
  • this occurs rapidly, with more antibodies produced than the primary response
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23
Q

What is phagocytosis? (2)

A
  • when antibodies clump to antigens
  • phagocytes engulf and digest the microbe with enzymes in the phagocyte
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24
Q

What is immunity?

A

When someone is protected from a particular infection or disease

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25
Q

What is active immunity? (2)

A
  • where the body produces antibodies itself
  • it is slower acting than passive but lasts longer
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26
Q

What is passive immunity? (3)

A
  • when antibodies from another source are injected into the body
  • fast acting but lasts for a short period
  • also can be from maternal milk
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27
Q

What are vaccinations? (2)

How are they made more reliable?

A
    • when dead/weakened pathogens are injected into the bloodstream
    • triggering an increase in antibody levels & production of memory lymphocytes
  2. Booster vaccinations
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28
Q

What is the difference between a primary and secondary response to infection?

A
  • secondary is faster
  • secondary produces many more antibodies
29
Q

How do plants protect themselves against infection?

(2)

A
  1. Structurally:
    - waxy cuticle prevent microbes entering
    - as do thick cell walls
  2. Chemically - secreting antimicrobial chemicals
30
Q

How was penicillin discovered? (3)

A
  • Fleming accidentally cultivated a fungus with bacteria in an agar plate
  • the fungus secreted a chemical which killed/inhibited the growth of bacteria (seen through area around fungus with no bacteria)
  • this was penicillin
31
Q

What is penicillin an example of?

A

An antibiotic

32
Q

Who was responsible for isolating penicillin?

A

Florey & Chain

33
Q

What are antibiotics? (2)

A
  • chemicals produced by fungi
  • used to kill bacteria or reduce their growth
34
Q

Where are drugs (like penicillin) manufactured?

Why are they produced at certain conditions?

A
  • In industrial fermenters
  • to prevent killing fungi / denaturing enzymes
35
Q

What are the two types of trials used when developing medicines?

What are these followed by?

A
    1. Preclinical trials
    2. Clinical trials
  • peer review
36
Q

What are the stages of preclinical trials? (2)

A
  1. Testing drugs on living cells and tissues in the lab (in vitro)
  2. Using animal testing and computer imaging
37
Q

Why are preclinical trials used?

A
  • (stage 1) To check if the drug is effective against living cells and isn’t toxic
  • (stage 2) to check the effects of the drug on living organisms
38
Q

What are the advantages and disadvantages of animal testing? (4)

A

Advantages;

  • avoids testing on humans
  • can check for side affects

Disadvantages:

  • drug may react differently with humans
  • ethical issues
39
Q

What happens during clinical trials? (2)

A
  • firstly, small numbers of healthy volunteers are tested upon
  • then more people use it, before patients eventually use it
40
Q

What is the purpose of clinical trials? (2)

A
  • to determine efficacy & the optimum dosage
  • to find possible side effects
41
Q

What is peer review?

A

When findings are scrutinized by scientists of at least equal standing to the investigator

42
Q

When penicillin is produced in fermenters, what process is undertaken to distribute it?

A

Downstreaming:

  • extraction
  • Purification
  • packaging
43
Q

How does bacteria become resistant to antibiotics?

A

When antibiotics are overused, leading to the development of superbugs with genetic mutations providing resistance

44
Q

What is MRSA an example of?

A

a superbug

45
Q

How is temperature kept constant in a fermenter? (2)

A
  • The cold water jacket
  • which is controlled by sensors
46
Q

Why are superbugs hard to treat? (2)

A
  • They have genetic mutations
  • which make them resistant to several antibiotics
47
Q

How is superbug spread reduced in hospitals? (3)

A
  • by only using antibiotics on bacterial infection
  • by taking care with hygiene (eg. Wearing gloves and cleaning spillages of bodily fluids immediately)
  • by isolating patients with superbugs
48
Q

Outline aseptic techniques (4)

A
  • sterilising Petri dishes, culture media, inoculating loops and culture bottles by autoclaving, flaming and alcohol
  • Petri dishes partially covered (when applying) and work near a Bunsen burner during inoculation to reduce the risk of contamination
  • incubating sealed Petri dishes at a maximum temperature of 25°C to avoid growth of pathogens
  • cleaning work surfaces and hands and safely disposing of bacterial cultures by autoclaving
49
Q

How do people get non-communicable diseases? (2)

A
  • genetic predisposition
  • lifestyle factors:
    1. Poor diet (high in sugar & fat)
    2. Lack of exercise (energy used in exercise less than intake)
    3. Overexposure to UV rays (mutations lead to skin cancer)
    4. Misuse of drugs
50
Q

What are the effects of overuse of alcohol?

What is this called (overuse)?

A
    1. Liver disease
    2. Foetal alcohol syndrome
  • binge drinking
51
Q

What are the effects of tar? (3)

A

Causes:

  • bronchitis - narrowing of bronchi and bronchioles
  • emphysema - damage to alveoli reducing area for gas exchange
  • lung cancer - carcinogens cause abnormal cell division
52
Q

What are the effects of nicotine? (2)

A
  • addictive
  • affects heart rate
53
Q

What is the effect of carbon monoxide? (2)

A
  • Combines with haemoglobin in red blood cells
  • which reduces their oxygen carrying capacity
54
Q

How does a heart attack occur? (6)

A
  • cholesterol build up on walls of coronary arteries leads to narrowing
  • increases the chance of either embolism or thrombosis
  • this reduces the amount of blood carrying oxygen and glucose to coronary muscle cells for respiration
  • as a result the coronary muscle cells die (infarction)
  • this means the muscle cells of the heart have to work harder,
  • resulting in a heart attack once the heart stops
55
Q

How does a stroke occur? (5)

A
  • cholesterol build up on walls of carotid arteries leads to narrowing
  • increases the chance of either embolism or thrombosis
  • this reduces the amount of blood carrying oxygen and glucose to neurons for respiration
  • as a result the neurons die (infarction)
  • resulting in a stroke and reduced brain function
56
Q

What factors contribute to coronary heart disease?

A
  • stress
  • excess cholesterol intake
  • smoking
  • lack of exercise
57
Q

What is angioplasty?

A

When dye is injected into the blood to allow examination of diseased blood vessels

58
Q

what are stents?

A

Small, mesh-like structures that are inserted into a blood vessel to keep the lumen open

59
Q

How do statins treat coronary heart disease? (2)

A
  • They reduce blood cholesterol
  • and the rate blood vessels become clogged by cholesterol deposits
60
Q

How does aspirin treat coronary heart disease? (2)

A
  • thins the blood
  • reducing the chance of clots forming in narrow blood vessels
61
Q

What is cancer

and

what can it lead to?

A
  • uncontrolled cell division
  • tumours
62
Q

What are the 2 types of tumour?

Explain their properties

A
  1. Benign:
  • surrounded by a capsule
  • doesn’t spread around the body
  1. Malignant:
  • not surrounded by a capsule
  • can spread around the body
  • due to cells from primary tumour breaking away
63
Q

Why is it important to detect cancer early? (3)

A
  • The tumour will be small (hasn’t metastasized)
  • and will have caused less damage to the body
  • meaning there is a greater chance of survival
64
Q

How can cancer be treated?

Describe each method

A
  • surgery - removing cancer cells from the body
  • radiotherapy - X-rays kill cancer cells
  • chemotherapy - using drugs to kill cancer cells
  • immunotherapy - antibodies attach to cancerous antigens followed by phagocytosis
65
Q

What is/are the advantage(s) and disadvantage(s) of surgery? (Cancer)

A

Advantages :

  • can swiftly remove small tumours

Disadvantages:

  • ineffective if the tumour has spread
  • or is in an inaccessible part of the body
66
Q

What is/are the advantage(s) and disadvantage(s) of radiotherapy? (Cancer)

A

Advantage:

  • very accurate against small tumours

Disadvantage:

  • Normal cells can be affected
67
Q

What is/are the advantage(s) and disadvantage(s) of chemotherapy? (Cancer)

A

Advantage:

  • can kill cancer growth anywhere

Disadvantage:

  • side affects like hair loss and killing memory lymphocytes, wiping out the immune system
68
Q

What is/are the advantage(s) and disadvantage(s) of immunotherapy? (Cancer)

A

Advantage:

  • reduced side affects

Disadvantage:

  • cancer cells can have different types of antigens on their surface, so the treatment can be ineffective

GCSE CCEA Biology unit 2 And 3 (7 decks)

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