Health and the People Flashcards
What are the 9 main themes in health throughout history?
🤺war
🛐religion
🤷♀️chance
👩⚖️government
📠communication
🔬science and technology
📈economy
💡new ideas
💃role of the individual
What is the criteria for assessing historical significance?
-importance at the time
-importance to people living today
-How deeply people’s lives were affected
-Quantity of lives affected
-Durability (how long people’s lives were affected)
What was the average lifespan in…
The medieval world
The end of the medieval world
The renaissance
The Industrial Revolution
The modern era
🧍♂️31 🧍♂️37 🧍♂️41 🧍♂️45 🧍♂️77
🧍♀️32 🧍♀️36 🧍♀️38 🧍♀️49 🧍♀️81
What did doctors know from
a)Ancient Egypt
b)Ancient Greece
c)Ancient Rome
a)Belief in the afterlife; pharaohs had doctors; mummification removed organs (believed heart to be center of one’s intelligence and other organs to eat and breathe)
b)Hippocrates introduced clinical observation and diagnosis and recommended natural remedies; wealthy lifestyle allowed time to think; Theory of 4 humors; still some supernatural ideas
c)Galen developed theory of four humors; Natural and supernatural (Asclepion-sacred medical centers); ideas fit with Christianity.
Hippocrates
1)Birth-death?
2)Where was he from?
3)What were six of his beliefs?
4) What is his significance today?
1) 460BC-370BC
2) Kos in Greece
3)✵Hippocratic oath-always act to patient’s best interests
✵Clinical observation used to decide best treatment
✵Treat body as a whole, not individual parts
✵ 4 Humors should be balanced
✵Diet + rest = very important
✵Illness is natural, not godly. Priests and doctors are separate
4) Hippocratic Oath and clinical observation.
What is the theory of the four humors?
The body consisted of four humors (blood, phlegm, black bile, yellow bile) that should be in balance and a person became ill if they were out of balance. A doctor’s job was to restore balance eg by bloodletting to get rid of the ‘bad blood’
Galen
1)birth-death?
2) What did he do?
3) What was his ideas?
4) How significant are they in the long term?
1) 130AD-210AD
2)Travelled- studied medicine in Egypt before travelling to Rome.
Worked as a doctor in gladiator school so saw SOME human anatomy
3)✵Built on theory of the four humors Developed opposites
✵Galen dissected animals and believed them to be similar to humans
4)The Church liked Galen’s work as it supported the design theory. They banned people questioning his work and human dissections were also banned. As a result, his ideas were used up until the 1700s. Roger Bacon went to prison for advocating scientific observation.
What could a medieval doctor do?
How did they diagnose?
They looked at two factors- the pulse and the smell, colour and taste of urine.
From this, natural medicines from plants, animal products, spices, oils, wines, and rocks were made.
Bloodletting, natural laxative, prayers, charms, astrology were also used.
urine charts or zodiac charts- said which parts of the body were linked to which signs; said when the medicine should be made and administered according to the moon.
What training did a medieval doctor get?
Seven years of study in a university like Oxbridge. Mostly listening to lectures, debating books and reading church approved texts such as Galen. Many doctors qualified without doing any practical work. Warfare helped surgeons improve skills. British doctors learned Hippocrates, Galen, Muslim, Indian and Chinese worlds. Medical theory, recipes, charms and Christian prayers.
Fall of Roman empire led to huge regression in medicine.
What were examples of medieval treatments?
Headache? Drink warm chamomile tea and lie down on a rosemary+lavender scented pillow for 15 mins.
Aching joints? Equal parts radish, bishopwort, garlic, wormwood, helenium, cropleek, hollowleek. Pound them up and boil in butter w/ celandine&red nettle. Keep in brass pot until misture turns red and rub on area.
Toothache? Worms are destroying the tooth. Burn with candle, worms will fall into cold water.
What did medieval people think caused disease?
✝ God sent plague/illness when society was sinful.
⭕ Everyday life. Quality of life was so bad that child/labour death was common and war and famine were common
➍The humors out of balance
👃Miasma. Death lower in the countryside. In towns, people lived together with animals and filth
🪐Alignment of the planets, especially the moon. Both body and planets made of earth, fire, water, air. All must be in harmony, no inbalances
✨Supernatural. Mystery and magic. Witchcraft & demons
What did the ordinary poor do?
University trained doctors were expensive. Barber surgeons were common and combined haircuts with small operations like tooth extraction, bloodletting and setting broken bones. They would be first trained as an apprentice to a previous barber surgeon, and also were trained on the battlefield.
Wise wo(men) used herbal remedies, first aid and supernatural, passed down by word of mouth, runs in the family.
What were Christian ideas about healing the sick?
What were the most important Christian treatments?
Jesus healed the sick, so they founded hospitals. Curing an illness could be seen as challenging God’s will. So caring for patients was necessary, curing was not.
Praying to God. Miraculous healing encouraged. Shrines filled with relics of Saint’s body parts, which people made pilgrimage to. Like the shrine to St Thomas Becket. St Bernard ‘To buy drugs or consult physicians doesn’t fit with religion.’ Galen was also followed.
How many hospitals were started in England between 1000 and 1500?
What was the structure of medieval hospitals?
Named examples?
700
12 patients (Jesus’s disciples) with a chaplain, run by monks or nuns under diet and prayer. No doctors. Financed by Church or a wealthy patron. Monasteries had infirmaries that provided free treatment to the sick and poor.
Bedlam in London- asylum for mentally ill
St Leonard’s in York- large hospital
Lazar houses- dealt with leprosy and isolated the sick, contagious people.
What did Christianity teach in universities about medicine?
According to Christianity, what was the role of the doctor?
The ancient Greek ideas. The training made old knowledge clearer, not discovering new ideas. Galen’s ideas fit with monotheism, so any criticism against them was criticism against the Church.
Not a healer, but one who could predict the symptoms and duration of an illness, and give reasons why God has done it. It gave people comfort and allowed their affairs to be in order before they died.
What were Islamic attitudes and principles about health and medicine?
There was stability which encouraged time for medical research. Many Caliphs were interested in science and medicine. Baghdad became a center for the translation of Greek manuscripts into Arabic, so they were preserved, but the West had lost them all with the fall of the Roman Empire. Prophet Muhammed said to seek learning as far as China, and ‘For every disease, Allah has given a cure’
What were Islamic hospitals like?
The first hospitals were set up for people with mental illness- they were treated with compassion as victims of an unfortunate illness.
805, Caliph al-Rashid set up a major new hospital in Baghdad with a medical school and a library. They intended to TREAT the patients. Bimaristans provided medical care for all people. Doctors were permanently present and medical students trained along with them.
Al-Razi
-Known as?
-birth-death?
-What did he think was important?
-What did he discover?
-What did he write?
-Ideas about Galen?
-Rhazes
-AD865-AD925
-The need for careful observation of the patient
-Distinguished measles from smallpox
-over 150 books
-Follower of Galen, but believed students should improve their teacher. Wrote ‘Doubts on Galen’
Ibn Sina
-Known as?
-Birth-death?
-What did he write?
-What did that book become?
-Avicenna
-980AD-1037AD
-Canon of Medicine. Over a million words, covered all Greek and Islamic knowledge listed the properties of 760 different drugs and contained chapters on obesity and anorexia.
-The standard European medical textbook until the 17th century
Ibn al Nafis
-Birth-Death?
-From?
-What did he think?
-What did he write about?
-How well received was he in the West?
-1213AD-1288AD
-Damascus, Syria
-Described how blood is circulated via the lungs (disagreed with Galen)
-Many medical topics (eye disease, diet)
-Not well. Contradicted Galen
How did Islamic medical ideas enter the West?
Latin translations of a merchant named Constantine the African . Grerad of Cremona continued with this.
What were some of the practices that a barber surgeon did?
What were the main problems with surgery?
What was used to prevent this problem?
What was cauterization?
What were common tools for medieval surgery?
bloodletting (restore balance of the four humors)
Amputation (was successful for breast cancer, bladder stones and hemorrhoids)
Trepanning (drilling a hole to get the epileptic demon out)
Pain, shock, infection
Mandrake root, opium and alcohol were some natural anesthetics, but too strong a dose could kill.
Burning the wound to stop the flow of blood- done with a heated iron and was very painful.
Amputation saws;arrow pullers; cautery irons; bloodletting knives.
Abulcasis
✎What did he write?
✎What did he invent?
✎What process did he use?
Frugardi
✎What did he write?
✎What did he do?
Hugh of Lucca and his son Theodoric
✎What did their book say?
✎ What did they do?
✎How well were they recieved?
✎Father of modern surgery
✎30vol medical book Al Tasrif in 1000
✎Invented 26 new surgical instruments
✎Used ligatures for tying blood vessels. Made cauterization popular.
✎The Practice of Surgery 1180. Widely used in Europe
✎Warned against trepanning ,tried operations on the chest ,attempted to remove bladder stones
✎Famous Italian surgeons
✎1267. Criticized common view that pus needed for a wound to heal.
✎Used wine on wounds to reduce chances of infection and had different methods of removing arrows.
✎Went against Hippocratic advice so did not become popular.
Mondino
✎What happened in 1315?
✎What was his book about?
✎What did dissections show?
De Chauliac
✎ What did his textbook contain?
John of Arderne
✎What did his surgical manual contain?
✎What was it based on?
✎What did he use to dull pain?
✎What did he treat?
✎ What did he try to do?
✎New interest in anatomy in 14th century
✎Public dissection allowed in Bologna, supervised by him
✎1316. Anathomia was standard dissection manual for over 200 years.
✎Introduced in most European universities to show Galen was correct. When disproved, they said the body was wrong.
✎Famous French surgeon
✎Great Surgery (1363) dominated for 200 years References to Greek and Islamic ideas like Avicenna, quoted Galen ~890 times. Was the reason of Lucca’s ideas didn’t catch on, as he wrote against them
✎Famous medieval surgeon
✎Practica 1376 illustrations of operations & instruments
✎Greek & Arab knowledge + experience in 100yr war between France and England.
✎Opium and henbane
✎Anal abscess (swelling with pus
✎1368, tried to separate surgeons from lower class barbers by creating ‘The Guild of Surgeons within the city of London’
What was public health like in England? (6)
> Towns built near rivers or waters for transport and easy access
Pipes of wood or lead used to transport water.
Privies in most towns and some houses with cesspits
Dug up annually by gong farmers (good manure)
Muddy rainy streets. Open drains carried away water& waste down street centers and would overflow.
Rich people got servants to clear away waste but it overflowed in poorer towns.
How did people try to keep towns clean? (6)
> Tried to remove bad air
Bath houses (rich only)
Town councils tried to stop businesses putting waste in water
Leather tanners used harsh chemicals, smelled awful. Butcher’s waste dumped in rivers
local craft guilds restricted work to certain areas.
Worcester 1466- entrails, blood disposed that night
What did some town councils do?
1298-
1330-
1371-
1374-
1388-
1) King Edward I says unhygienic conditions in York are danger to soldiers preparing for invasion, so council orders building of public latrines in the city.
2) Glamorgan council laws butchers throwing animal remains into the High Street or close to town gates
3)London mayors prohibit killing of large animals within city walls
4)London local council makes householders who use stream to defecate pay a fee to have it cleaned.
5)Parliament passes law fining people £20 who throw garbage dung and entrails into ditches ponds and rivers Hard to catch offenders
What were examples of good public health in Medieval England?
✎Some towns had Roman systems to help them supply water.
✎Streets outside the houses of rich citizens cleaned by servants.
✎Bath houses, tweezers, toothpicks and mouthwashes were used by Medievals.
How did monasteries have better health?
✒Monasteries were isolated, but near water sources.
✒Elaborate system of pipes delivered water to wash basins
✒Settling tanks purified water.
✒Lavatorium provided good washing and flushing facilities.
✒Had baths regularly as a symbol of piety and celibacy.(1/month)(Benedictine 2/yr)
✒Washed clothes, hands, faces regularly, Feet washed twice a week
Why were conditions better in monasteries?
Educated and disciplined
✒Could read and access to medical books and manuscripts
✒Trained in use for herbs in healing
✒Roman ideas= simple moderation in diet, sleep and exercise
👍health facilities, isolation, knowledge, discipline
Money
✒People donated money, land and valuables to have prayer said about them and their loved ones
✒Money from wool production
✒sheep need large grazing areas so far from town
✒Used to build good sanitation facilities.
1)Where did the Black Death come from?
2)What was it’s effect?
3)How was it spread?
4)What were the causes?
1)Spread from Asia into North Africa and Europe during 1300s.
2)Reduced European population by 25-50%
3)Bacteria living in fleas living on rats on ships
4)Bubonic plague- spread by fleas, lumps on groin, neck & armpits
Pneumonic Plague- infected lungs, caused fever and coughing, spread by contact.
What did people think were the causes of the Black Death?
What were the most common treatments?
-Position of the stars and the -planets.
-Miasma
-Poisoning of wells by Jews (only Europe, England had no Jews)
-God’s anger
Churches organised services & processions asking God’s forgiveness
Ordinary people prayed to God for forgiveness.
Flagellants whipped themself to show repentance for sins.
People ordered to clean streets of dirt and waste.
Bloodletting
Natural potions and smelling sweet flowers like posies.
What was the impact of the Black Death?
Political💼
Social👤
💼Harsh laws tried to stop improvement of peasant’s lives
💼1351 Statute of Labourers- tried to stop peasants roaming round the countryside for better pay
💼Feudal system collapsed
👤~1/3 of English and Welsh population died. Took 250 years to recover.
👤Poor people’s clothing and diet improved and officials realized towns and cities had to be cleaner.
👤Food shortages- unploughed, unharvested rotting food. Bread shortage due to animal farm increase. Unattended animals escaped
👤Medical knowledge better- corpses were studied. This and artistic ideas later bring Renaissance.
👤Creative works morbid- image of death everywhere and widespread persecution of minorities like foreigners, Jews, beggars and lepers.
👤Some thought it could return any day, so lived a wild life- drink, parties, careless living.
What was the impact of the Black Death?
Religious ✞
Economic £
✞Many churches closed- not enough priests
✞Catholic critics arose (Lollards)
✞Some believed they could stand up to authority as God had spared them.
✞They demanded better wages and lifestyle as God was on their side.
✞Some accused clergy of being cowards and deserting villages, so tarnished rep.
£ tax increased- kings couldn’t afford wars
£ wages increased by 400% as fewer workers were alive so people demanded more or left to find other work that payed them better.
£ value of land decreased. Lords lost lots of money
£ inflation due to food shortages.
1-What does Renaissance mean?
2-Where did it originate from?
3-What did people start doing because of the Renaissance?
1- Rebirth
2-Italy through love of classical buildings, statues, paintings and texts.
3-Becoming more educated in art, music, science and literature, questioning accepted truth ; searching for evidence ; experimenting new ideas. Scientists experimented, traders explored new land and made better maps, doctors tried different treatments and artists began making drawings more life like.
The ———– challenged ——— —— — leading to…
The ——— of the ———- in —- allowed…
The ——– of the ——– —– in —- allowed…
English people had become ——– since the —– —– and —– more on ———-, improving…
A — —– of — led to…
REFORMATION / RELIGIOUS STATUS QUO individuals questioning important aspects of life like the role of God and science
INVENTION / MICROSCOPE / 1666 scientists and doctors to make and explain discoveries
CREATION / PRINTING PRESS / 1451 ideas to spread quickly across Europe
WEALTHIER / BLACK DEATH / SPENT / EDUCATION literacy rates increasing number of people accessing new scientific ideas
NEW STYLE / ART led to more realistic sketches of the human body
The Vitruvian Man, Da Vinci, 1487. Inspired by ancient Roman architect, Vitruvius
