Health and the People Flashcards

Question

What was public health like in England? (6)

Answer 1

>Towns built near rivers or waters for transport and easy access >Pipes of wood or lead used to transport water. >Privies in most towns and some houses with cesspits >Dug up annually by gong farmers (good manure) >Muddy rainy streets. Open drains carried away water& waste down street centers and would overflow. >Rich people got servants to clear away waste but it overflowed in poorer towns.

Answer 2

>Tried to remove bad air >Bath houses (rich only) >Town councils tried to stop businesses putting waste in water >Leather tanners used harsh chemicals, smelled awful. Butcher's waste dumped in rivers >local craft guilds restricted work to certain areas. >Worcester 1466- entrails, blood disposed that night

Answer 3

1) King Edward I says unhygienic conditions in York are danger to soldiers preparing for invasion, so council orders building of public latrines in the city. 2) Glamorgan council laws butchers throwing animal remains into the High Street or close to town gates 3)London mayors prohibit killing of large animals within city walls 4)London local council makes householders who use stream to defecate pay a fee to have it cleaned. 5)Parliament passes law fining people £20 who throw garbage dung and entrails into ditches ponds and rivers Hard to catch offenders

Answer 4

✎Some towns had Roman systems to help them supply water. ✎Streets outside the houses of rich citizens cleaned by servants. ✎Bath houses, tweezers, toothpicks and mouthwashes were used by Medievals.

Answer 5

✒Monasteries were isolated, but near water sources. ✒Elaborate system of pipes delivered water to wash basins ✒Settling tanks purified water. ✒Lavatorium provided good washing and flushing facilities. ✒Had baths regularly as a symbol of piety and celibacy.(1/month)(Benedictine 2/yr) ✒Washed clothes, hands, faces regularly, Feet washed twice a week

Answer 6

Educated and disciplined ✒Could read and access to medical books and manuscripts ✒Trained in use for herbs in healing ✒Roman ideas= simple moderation in diet, sleep and exercise 👍health facilities, isolation, knowledge, discipline Money ✒People donated money, land and valuables to have prayer said about them and their loved ones ✒Money from wool production ✒sheep need large grazing areas so far from town ✒Used to build good sanitation facilities.

Answer 7

1)Spread from Asia into North Africa and Europe during 1300s. 2)Reduced European population by 25-50% 3)Bacteria living in fleas living on rats on ships 4)Bubonic plague- spread by fleas, lumps on groin, neck & armpits Pneumonic Plague- infected lungs, caused fever and coughing, spread by contact.

Answer 8

-Position of the stars and the -planets. -Miasma -Poisoning of wells by Jews (only Europe, England had no Jews) -God's anger Churches organised services & processions asking God's forgiveness Ordinary people prayed to God for forgiveness. Flagellants whipped themself to show repentance for sins. People ordered to clean streets of dirt and waste. Bloodletting Natural potions and smelling sweet flowers like posies.

Answer 9

💼Harsh laws tried to stop improvement of peasant's lives 💼1351 Statute of Labourers- tried to stop peasants roaming round the countryside for better pay 💼Feudal system collapsed 👤~1/3 of English and Welsh population died. Took 250 years to recover. 👤Poor people's clothing and diet improved and officials realized towns and cities had to be cleaner. 👤Food shortages- unploughed, unharvested rotting food. Bread shortage due to animal farm increase. Unattended animals escaped 👤Medical knowledge better- corpses were studied. This and artistic ideas later bring Renaissance. 👤Creative works morbid- image of death everywhere and widespread persecution of minorities like foreigners, Jews, beggars and lepers. 👤Some thought it could return any day, so lived a wild life- drink, parties, careless living.

Answer 10

✞Many churches closed- not enough priests ✞Catholic critics arose (Lollards) ✞Some believed they could stand up to authority as God had spared them. ✞They demanded better wages and lifestyle as God was on their side. ✞Some accused clergy of being cowards and deserting villages, so tarnished rep. £ tax increased- kings couldn't afford wars £ wages increased by 400% as fewer workers were alive so people demanded more or left to find other work that payed them better. £ value of land decreased. Lords lost lots of money £ inflation due to food shortages.

Answer 11

1- Rebirth 2-Italy through love of classical buildings, statues, paintings and texts. 3-Becoming more educated in art, music, science and literature, questioning accepted truth ; searching for evidence ; experimenting new ideas. Scientists experimented, traders explored new land and made better maps, doctors tried different treatments and artists began making drawings more life like.

Answer 12

REFORMATION / RELIGIOUS STATUS QUO individuals questioning important aspects of life like the role of God and science INVENTION / MICROSCOPE / 1666 scientists and doctors to make and explain discoveries CREATION / PRINTING PRESS / 1451 ideas to spread quickly across Europe WEALTHIER / BLACK DEATH / SPENT / EDUCATION literacy rates increasing number of people accessing new scientific ideas NEW STYLE / ART led to more realistic sketches of the human body The Vitruvian Man, Da Vinci, 1487. Inspired by ancient Roman architect, Vitruvius

Answer 13

1)1514-1564 2)University of Paris, taught by fan and defender of Galen Became surgery professor at University of Padua in Italy 3)Dissected HUMANS himself 4)Galen was wrong- no small holes in heart. Dissected animals to see how Galen got his knowledge. He promoted dissection in his lectures and became popular. Explained how different systems of the body worked together- skeletal,muscle,nerves,veins, digestion,reproduction. 5)'Fabric of the human body' 1543, working with skilled artists to produce accurate diagrams 6)Heavily criticized and had to leave his job. 7)Barber surgeons used and studied his book in England. 8) Overturned centuries of belief of Galen and spread ideas using book. Didn't lead to any cures, but was the basis of better treatments in the future.

Answer 14

1)1510-1590 2)4 French king's surgeon, most famous in Europe, started as army surgeon 3)Used rose oil, egg white and turpentine to heal gunshot wounds after running out of hot oil. 4)The patients slept well and their wounds healed quickly. 5)Used ligatures instead of cauterizing with an iron. Galen recommended 6)Effective, but could introduce infection and took a long time 7)Made/designed prosthetic 8)Vesalius 9)Works on Surgery (1575) including large sections of Vesalius's work but in French, not Latin 10) Well. Many followed him and William Clowes (Queen Liz 1 surgeon) admired him called him 'famous surgeon master'

Answer 15

1)1578-1657 2)Explored blood circulation. Studied human hearts, and slow beating hearts of cold blooded animals to understand how muscles worked. Tried to pump blood the wrong way through valve, and worked out how much blood would have to be produced if it was a fuel for the body 3)Blood can only go around one way, circulating around the body. Artery blood was different to vein blood. Heart pumped blood around the body constantly. 4)Why the blood circulated, why artery blood and vein blood were different colors, how artery and vein exchanged blood. 5)Badly. Was criticized or ignored. Contradicted Galen and bloodletting. Some patients didn't want to be treated by him. Was seen as a quack. Was taught in universities 50 years after publication. 6)Very. Blood tests, blood transfusions and heart transplants couldn't happen without him. 7)On the Motion of the Heart

Answer 16

1)1624-1689 2)Close observation of a disease and only providing treatments necessary for the disease. Natural medicine from nature. Dismissed Harvey and dissections. 3)Wrote 'Medical Observations' Became a standard medical textbook. Treated fever using 'cool therapy' 4)Some contemporaries hailed him, others thought he was eccentric.

Answer 17

She grew herbs and wrote recipe books for cures (wet a sheet of white paper with vinegar and dry in oven. Repeat three times, powder it and snort it.TRADITIONAL Sold as a preventative and cure, with long lists of unproven claims. Success depended on seller's personal charm/charisma. Alcohol and opium were main ingredients, causing dulling of pain. Sometimes worked, but no science. TRADITIONAL

Answer 18

Wrote 'Complete Herbal' in ENGLISH. Physicians had overpriced fees so he treated people for free. Examined and talked to his patients in person, rather than examining urine. Classified herbs and plants by their uses, but tried to mix with astrology :( Rhubarb hailed as wonder drug from Asia. Cinchona bark from South America could treat malaria. Opium from China. Lemons and limes to treat scurvy. Tobacco brought from America by Raleigh- Herbal remedies- Some Eton schoolboys were beaten for refusing to smoke as it was said to keep the plague away.

Answer 19

✽King Charles II was bled, purged and cauterized; none of which helped his kidney disease. ✽Quack medicine played on people's fears and uncertainty. ✽Bloodletting was still a common, regular treatment. ✽Many believed in the 'royal touch'.~3000 people came to London every year to be cured by the King. ✽Barber-surgeons, quacks, apothecaries, wise women were common medical advice for all but the richest.

Answer 20

✽Robert Burton studied mental illness. Fresh air, music, exercise, laughter as remedies. ✽Sir John Foyer identified cause of asthma and offered ways to treat. (Clear air/diet) ✽1753 James Lind used limes and lemons to treat scurvy. ✽George Cheyne 1724. Obesity is hereditary + poor lifestyle. People should be responsible for their health. ✽1671. Jane Sharp argued midwifery should be female only, and used her own knowledge and expertise.

Answer 21

✽Herbal remedies passed down through generations. Honey killed bacteria and willow tree bark dulled pain ✽Foreign medicine ✽1741 Thomas Coram created the Foundling Hospital. Provided care for abandoned children, who lived and were educated by the hospital.

Answer 22

➝Miasma, imbalance of the 4 humors, alignment of the planets, punishment from God. ⤴People were contagious. Infected people kept away and people stayed away from bodily fluids like pus. ➝Public days of fasting and prayer ➝People swept the area outside their homes ➝Pigs, cats, dogs etc banned from the middle of the city ➝People sniffed sponges soaked in vinegar. ⤴Examiners appointed to recognize and diagnose plague and families reported symptoms. ⤴People forced to stay indoors and isolated. ⤴Red cross painted on the door 'Lord be with us' ⤴Avoided going out and washed money ⤴Stray animals killed. 40000 dogs and 200000 cats ⤴Bearbaiting and theater banned- no large gatherings. ⤴Trade between towns banned.

Answer 23

➝Buboes cut to relieve pus and balance four humors. ➝Bloodletting ➝People got religious symbols and prayed. ➝ Frogs, snakes and scorpions used to draw out poisons. ⤴Plague doctor- leather hat, Glass eye, mask with herbs and spices to filter miasma. Full length gown and long leather gloves. ⤴New foreign herbs used. Plague drink 'wine mixed with water and herbs' ☼Ran its natural course ☼Great fire of London (wood replaced with stone and brick so disease stopped spreading) ☼Rats developed greater resistance ☼Quarantine laws prevented epidemic diseases coming into the country on ships.

Answer 24

☼Every parish, examiners inquired and learned who was sick. Gave orders for that house to be shut up. (Understood disease was contagious) ☼2 watchmen / infected house to prevent people going in or out. (Understood risk of contagious disease) ☼Burial of dead after sunset, with nobody else.(Understood disease was contagious) ☼Bedding, chamber hanging etc were well aired with fire and perfume (Tried to stop miasma, but could've killed bacteria and sterilized sheets) ☼Plays, bearbaiting, games, ale houses and coffee houses banned (Believed it was a punishment from God)

Answer 25

Henry VIII took the wealth of the Catholic Church and monasteries, which he used to start hospitals like St. Bartholomew’s and St. Thomas’ in London. Charitable gifts of private people (banks (Westminster 1719) and merchants (Guy’s hospital)) Local people came together to fund local hospitals.

Answer 26

📍Attempted to treat people and gave future doctors training and sometimes medical school were attached to the hospitals ( got to do practical work) 📍wards for specific diseases 📍Doctors gained official posts at hospitals to get better reputation and attract wealthy patients. Ordinary people got free treatment, doctor’s income came from private patients 📍 Towards the end of the 18th century, hospitals created dispensaries, where the poor would be given medicine for free

Answer 27

Hospitals for the mentally ill (St Luke’s and Bedlam); STDs (London’s Lock); maternity (Middlesex and British Hospital for Mothers and Babies) Foundling Hospital 📍Between 1720-1750, 5 new general hospitals added to London and 9 more throughout the country. 📍By 1800, 20000 patients handled a year (470 in 1400) 📍Christians stressed the importance of showing faith through actions by doing good deeds in the community, like caring for the sick. Religious motive 📍 people stopped thinking of disease as a punishment. William Battie advocated the mental illness was as curable as any other disease

Answer 28

1)Royal College of Physicians.1600 2)1700, half, physicians, apprenticeship 3) 1800, Royal College of surgeons, surgeons, 7 4) 1811. Attend a one year course in anatomy before qualification 5) 1813 Work in a hospital for one year before qualification.

Answer 29

2 of England’s most famous surgeons- William Cheselden and Percivall Potts. •Became an army surgeon •set up surgical practice in London •Became surgeon at St George’s • Appointed king’s surgeon •Surgeon general to the army

Answer 30

Hunter injected himself with the pus of a gonorrhoea to see if it could exist with syphilis. In 1785, the man was admitted to St Georges hospital with an aneurysm on his knee joint. The usual treatment was to amputate the leg, but Hunter restricted blood supply above the aneurysm to encourage new blood vessels to develop and bypass the damaged area. He developed this on animals and then conducted surgery on the patient and six weeks later the man walked.

Answer 31

1768. Set up a large practise and trained many other surgeons. Eg Edward Jenner trained with him and they were close friends. Books based on observations, practical skills as a director and willingness to experiment 1771: The natural history of the teeth- dentistry 1786:On veneral diseases.(based on self experimentation, translated in many languages and widely read) Blood information and gunshot wounds (gunshot wounds weren’t poisoned and the area didn’t need to be cut out) 3000 stuffed or dried anatomical species. Experimented with inflating narrow blood vessels with wax to study blood flow

Answer 32

-trained many British surgeons after 1768 -Encouraged human dissection to advance the understanding of anatomy -Told surgeons to trust the bodies’ natural wound healing process -Taught the importance of observation an experiment

Answer 33

•Very contagious but eradicated in 1890 after global campaign • 30 to 60% of people who caught it, died and survivors carried scores for life and some were left blind • Mortality 35000 in 1796 and 42000 between 1837 and 1840. Queen Mary second died from it in 1694. ~ Scratching pus or scabs from smallpox victims onto healthy people’s skin ~ Fashionable Aristocrat (Lady Mary Wortley Montagu) had her children inoculated after seeing it in Turkey. Very profitable. 1760s Robert and daniel Sutton (Father and son) devised an easier way of inoculation and earned a fortune, but only the rich could afford > Religious objections, preventing God sent sickness was wrong > germs not well understood so scepticism as no one knew how it worked > doses were not controlled, so some were fatal > inoculated people Were still vectors > only the rich could afford it

Answer 34

-what is apprentice to a country surgeon ages 13 to 19 -Studied in London with John Hunter, who encouraged him to conduct experiments and test theories -Returned to Gloucestershire as country doctor in 1772 -Published book on vaccination in 1798 -Appointed physician extraordinary to King George IV 1821 He heard that milkmaids who caught cowpox did not get smallpox, so he inserted cowpox into an eight-year-old boy in 1796, he then gave him smallpox, but no disease followed. He repeated this 16 times and concluded that humans that had the less dangerous cowpox were protected from the deadly smallpox. -he couldn’t explain how it worked -Many profited from inoculation so disliked his findings -William Woodville and George Pearson tried this, but that equipment was contaminated, so they conclude Jenner was wrong -he wasn’t a fashionable city doctor -anti-compulsory vaccination league set up in 1866 arguing it was the right of parents decide if their child was vaccinated

Answer 35

Thomas Beddoes and his assistant, Humphry Davy inhaled nitrous oxide. Published an account in 1800 said it made him laugh, feel giddy and relaxed, but did not recognise medicinal value. Became fairground, novelty and people paid to Inhale it. 1844, American dentist horrors Wells, used it in the removal of one of his own teeth. This did not convince doctors. William Clark, another American dentist used in a tooth extraction in January 1842. Doctors noticed. Crawford Long, American country doctor used it to remove the next growth from a patient in March. William Morton on 16 October 1846 is public demonstration in a Boston hospital, Robert Liston Used in a leg amputation in December Difficult to inhale, cause vomiting, highly flammable

Answer 36

Professor of midwifery at Edinburgh University. Discovered chloroform by experimenting with friends when someone knocked over a bottle. Some thought it was cowardice , the dosage meant some died, God wanted women in pain in childbirth Queen Victoria use chloroform to give birth to her son, and she praised it Didn’t reduce mortality rates and longer operations led to more blood loss and deeper infections. Dosage.

Answer 37

Chemical reactions inside the wound First try naturally, then reduce inflammation with bandages and cleanliness. If it became infected, they cauterised or used acid. 1677, first microscope showed tiny organisms, which were also identified in the blood of the sick, but no connection. 1699 Francesco Redi boiled liquid and sealed it and no microbes appeared but 1748 John Needham did it but his equipment was contaminated and he wasn’t careful. Spontaneous generation: microbes appeared randomly when stuff rotted. Thought disease caused microbes and all were the same.

Answer 38

-Microbes were specific, not all the same. (1835, Agostino Bassi linked specific fungus to a silkworm disease called muscarine) -Friedrich Henle challenged spontaneous generation and suggested microbes caused infection. Based his work on Bassi. Was dismissed at the time. •William Farr and Florence Nightingale said cleaning environment stops epidemics (caused by infections interacting with the environment) •James Simpson wanted hospitals rebuilt or relocated. Public campaigns to move them to the countryside. Miasma influenced this.

Answer 39

•John Simon said infection was spread by contact of an infected person or bacteria. Controlled by quarantine and preventing contact •Thomas Wells 1864 was first surgeon in Britain to suggest a non-chemical cause of infection. Referred to Pasteur and antiseptic substances.

Answer 40

1. 1822-1895 2. Experimented why wine and beer went sour. Used swan neck beaker to prevent air getting in and heated to kill all microbes. 3. Germs did not come alive by themselves, but found in places they could reach easily and infected things. Biological not chemical 4. vaccination, fermentation, pasteurisation 5.Through Joseph Lister

Answer 41

1. 1827-1912 Exeter 2. Studied surgery and became part of Royal College of surgeons in 1852. 3. 1860, Glasgow, professor of surgery 4. 1860. operations went well if the wound was kept free from infection. 5. Thomas Anderson, professor of chemistry, suggested report by Pasteur 6. Lister asked Anderson if there was a chemical that could kill bacteria and he recommended carbolic acid. 7. Infections only happened when the skin was broken as microbes could get in.

Answer 42

August 1865, Jamie Greenlees … amputating just above the fracture… set the bones … used dressings soaked in carbolic acid… fracture and skin healing well … six weeks Germ Theory… experimented with carbolic acid spray to reduce infection during surgery… fell from 46% to 15% Sterilise his operating room… patients’ wounds… carbolic acid Machine to automatically spray room with carbolic acid Train surgeons… London Sterilised catgut… internal stitches

Answer 43

•People not familiar with germ theory •Biological theory, not chemical •1868 Professor John Bennett argued that as cells died, They spontaneously generated infection. • Influential writer, Charlton Bastian, strongly approved spontaneous generation . wrote and lectured against Listerism in the late 1860s and early 1870s •carbolic spray slowed down operations •made operating conditions unpleasant - carbolic acid made one’s hands dry up and crack and breathing it irritated lungs. When Lister made changes to prevent this, some surgeons said he didn’t know what he was doing •surgeons who weren’t careful did not have Lister’s success Didn’t fully understand microbes, only one type. Didn’t scrub hands before surgery, only rinsed in carbolic acid and wore his street clothes.

Answer 44

•By The 1890s, surgeons in Europe and North America were well scrubbed, wearing gowns and new, thin, flexible gloves as well as sterilised equipment 1890s First surgeon in Britain to wear surgical gloves and change into sterile white garments for surgery. Took a long time for other doctors to catch on. It was biological, not chemical. Hard to believe something as small as a microbe could affect a big human.Vets Invented steam steriliser for medical instruments, which removed need to carbolic acid and increased surgery survival rates 1881 Aided Koch’s discovery of bacteria called septicaemia. Reduced mortality rates and was one of the first to introduce aseptic surgery1886

Answer 45

🐄1866 🐄spontaneous generation 🐄kill cattle, so disease spread nationwide 🐄 outbreak could only be controlled by quarantining and slaughtering cattle. Food shortages, and prices rose. 🐄 professor Lionel Beale 🐄 June 1866, recognised the specific microbe responsible, but also demonstrated how microscopes could help with complex medical research

Answer 46

❗️John Tyndall ❗️Publicly defended Pasteur’s Germ theory and argued against Bastian ❗️Lectured on both dust and disease, bringing together past year and listers work with experiments on at that showed tiny microbes in ordinary air Typhoid fever (infectious bacterial fever, symptoms include red spots, and severe intestinal irritation) Prince Albert’s Death Emmanuel Klein, but he was mistaken

Answer 47

1.1843-1910 Germany 2. Professor Frederick Henle 3. Surgeon in the Franco Prussian war and German medical officer 4. founder of modern bacteriology. 5. Noble prize in 1905.

Answer 48

1. 1876. Found a way of staining and growing anthrax germ responsible for sores on the lungs that can kill humans and animals. 2. Identified the germs of cholera and tuberculosis 3. • Bacterium had to be present in successive experimental animals and retrieve from each dead animal and cultured to prove it was responsible. • Growed, microbes on solidified agar: encouraged microbes to grow • Used dyes to stain specific microbes, so they will stand out amongst others • Developed ways of photographing microbes, so other scientist could study them in detail 4. 🦠Bacteria taken from dead animal. 🦠Bacteria, grown and identified 🦠Bacteria injected into healthy animal 🦠Bacteria taken from healthy animal 🦠Identical bacteria identified 5. Was inspired by him, but they saw each other as rivals competing in honour of respective countries

Answer 49

1874 William Dallinger, and John Drysdale published a paper describing the life-cycle of microbes 1876 John Tyndall continue to promote Pasteur’s germ theory and lectured to British doctors on Koch’s discoveries about anthrax William Roberts, Manchester doctor, supported criticisms of spontaneous generation and developed a doctors version of germ theory, linking all laboratory research work with practical evidence of surgeons and public health doctors. 1879, Lister’s deputy surgeon, William Cheyne translated Koch’s work into English. Road paper on Koch’s findings, and explained some microbes present in healthy tissue and wounds were harmless.

Answer 50

1. rivalry between France and German increased after France lost against Germany. Also defeating illness had a big impact on the battlefield. 2. both equipped with laboratory and team of scientists paid for by government, recognised internationally and awarded many prizes like noble prize in 1905, and Copley medal in 1874 3. Koch’s success in identifying the anthrax germ, spurred Pastuer and team to quickly develop vaccines for cholera and anthrax. 4. One of Pasteur’s assistant accidentally uses an old and weak sample of chicken cholera, microbes injected into chickens and the chicken survived, which led Pasteur to prove that weak Microbes built up chickens defences against stronger ones. 5. Pasteur demonstrated his vaccine in front of politicians, farmers and journalists and news were sent around Europe by electric telegraph. Most of Koch’s discoveries, spread by scientific articles and conferences.

Answer 51

To get a new jobs in factories, built in the north and Midlands of England, which needed thousands of workers From 1801-1851 Bradford 13,000-104,000 Liverpool 82,000-376,000 Manchester 70,000-303,000 London 957,000-2,362,000 Back to back houses were built. Many houses used a single lavatory and often five or more people shared a single room. A bucket in the corner of the room would be emptied into the street or sold to farmers (manure) and occasionally a street toilet (deep hole with a shed) was shared by many families. No rubbish collections, street cleaners, sewers or fresh running water, and most families washed their clothes, bathed and drank from the same river.

Answer 52

Typhoid-contaminated food or water-spread by poor sanitation, unhygienic conditions, sewage will get into water supply that people drink Tuberculosis -germs passed an air by sneezing and coughing-spread rapidly in crowded conditions. Another type of TB caused by infected cows milk Cholera- contaminated, food, or water-several epidemics Chimney boys suffered from scrotal cancer from soot particles and coal miners from pneumoconiosis from breathing in coal dust

Answer 53

🦠 Pasteur’s germ theory was not accepted till 1860s and pasteurisation till 1880s, 🏠 cheap houses built quickly, 🚂 workers had to live close to places of work as they couldn’t commute 👨‍⚖️ governments, laisser faire approach 💰 medical care private and expensive 🍱 fresh food was hard to get

Answer 54

1. 50,000 the coffins could not be made fast enough for the dead 2. Violently sick and suffered from painful diarrhoea. The skin and nails turned black just before the victim fell into a coma and died. 3. Miasma from rotting animals, rubbish and human waste in streets. Some towns cleaned up the streets, but the importance of clean water still wasn’t understood. 4. After outbreaks in 1837 and 1838, government appointed lawyerEdwin Chadwick to write a report and living conditions in Britain. Over 10,000 copies, handed out to politicians journalists and writers. 5.• more people killed by disease than wars • people cannot develop clean habits until they have clean water • Need to cleaner streets and clean water supply. The poor were not to blame for bad living conditions. There was little they can do about it. It was parliament that had to do something

Answer 55

Passed public health act in 1848, could force areas to set up their own local board of health, which had the power to appoint a specialist medical officer, provide sewers, inspect lodging houses and check food quality Some towns like Liverpool, Sunderland, Birmingham made huge improvements, but others didn’t do anything and 1854, central board of health was closed down because of strong resentment of government interference

Answer 56

❄️ famous surgeon working in broad Street, Soho London ❄️ all the victims in the street and nearby streets, got the water from the Broad Street, water pump. Those who didn’t, didn’t die. ❄️ remove the handle of the water pump, so people had to use another and there are no more deaths ❄️ found that a street toilet had cracked lining, that allowed polluted water to contaminate drinking water ❄️Was not carried through air like poisonous gas for my asthma, but it was caught through contagion ❄️Nothing

Answer 57

1. Summer of1858, a heatwave. 2. Politicians in the house of parliament couldn’t meet. They asked Joseph Bazalgette to create a sewage system that removed waste 3. Drew up network of underground tunnels to intercept waste, using gravity and the slope of London river basin to get the sewers to flow downstream towards the sea. He was given £3 million and used 318 million bricks, built 83 miles of sewers and removed 420,000,000 gallons of sewage every day. 4. After the Suez were fully operational cholera never returned to London

Answer 58

Farr introduced compulsory registration of Births Marriages and Deaths in 1837, authorities were more aware of health problems Southwood Smith study disease is caused by poverty, his work was used by Chadwick as evidence to improve public health Research, living conditions and health of the poor in towns and linked poverty to poor living standards and ill health Working-class men were given the right to vote in 1867, politicians began to improve the nation’s health so that working-class people could vote for them

Answer 59

>Chadwick report, 1848 >1848, voluntary, allowed councils to raise money to improve conditions, but few opted to do this > compulsory vaccination > London Sewer system work begins > sanitary act 1866. Local authority is responsible for sewers, water and street cleaning. > •Food and drug act, regulated food and medicines with guidelines • Artisans dwelling act makes homeowners responsible for keeping their properties and good orders and gives local councils power to Buy and demolish slum housing if not improved. • Second public health act compulsory. Forced local councils to provide clean water and appoint medical offices of health and sanitary inspectors.

Answer 60

When Pasteur published, his germ theory in 1861, the world realised that bacteria was the cause of many diseases, not miasma or God’s punishment etc. After Pasteur and Koch, identified the different types of bacteria that caused specific diseases, doctors began to use the weakened forms to allow the body to build immunity. This was something Jenner tried with smallpox in 1796. Soon vaccines were created to prevent diseases, like diphtheria, TB, rabies and anthrax. Koch found certain chemicals sought out specific bacteria in the body. Assistant Paul Ehrlich found chemical that will not only stain but kill the bacteria. After Ehrlich’s, discovery of a chemical cure for syphilis in 1909, magic bullets were found by scientists over the next 20 years . One example, was prontosil, a red chemical that worked against the germs that caused blood poisoning. Its active ingredient was sulphonamide. More of these were developed to cure/control, meningitis, pneumonia and scarlet fever.

Answer 61

Bacteriologist Alexander Fleming was sent to St Mary’s Hospital in London to study the treatment of wounded soldiers 1945 along with Florey and chain He left several plates of germs on a bench. When he went on holiday, when he came home, he noticed a large blob of mould in one of the dishes, and noticed that the Staphylococcus germs next to the mould has been killed. He took a sample of the mould And found it to be penicillin. He published his findings that penicillin had germ killing capabilities, but he did not develop this further or test on living organisms.

Answer 62

1. They asked for funding for penicillin research and only got £25 2. They grew and extracted penicillin and successfully, tested it on 8 Mice. 3. 43-year-old policeman, Albert Alexander had an infection from a rosebush scratch. All other drugs failed, but he got better with penicillin, but when the supply ran out, he died. 4. He went to America to meet with the US government who agree to pay several huge chemical companies to manufacture millions of penicillin. 5.a) 100 patients b) 40,000 patients c) 250000 people a month 6) encouraged, the start of large pharmaceutical companies like GlaxoSmithKline, Hoffman-LaRoche, and Pfizer 7) it’s worth 200,billion to 300billion and 80,000 people

Answer 63

During the Second World War 12 to 15% of wounded soldiers would have died without being given penicillin Thousands of injured soldiers returned to service much quicker Encouraged the discovery of other antibiotics, such as streptomycin (1944), which treated tuberculosis; tetracycline (1953), for skin infections; mitomycin (1956), chemotherapy drug for treating several different cancers

Answer 64

10 million and 20 million Thousands of doctors were taken away from the normal work to treat casualties Medical research was stopped during war time, so countries could focus on war effort. Destroying towns and cities, sometimes destroyed libraries, and places of learning, which erased some knowledge

Answer 65

😮 some soldiers had panic attacks, others shook all the time and were unable to speak or move. To begin with this was not recognised, and many of the men were treated as cowards however, there was so many cases that shellshock is officially recognised as PTSD 🩸 Karl Landsteiner discovered blood groups and helped doctors to match blood transfusion groups. In 1914, Albert Huston discovered that glucose and sodium citrate stopped blood from clotting, so bloody could be bottled and transported safely. 🩻 x-rays were discovered in 1895, but mobile x-ray machines were used in World War I to figure out exactly where the wound was in the body without having to cut them wide open 🫠 Harold Gillies set up a special unit to graft skin and treat those suffering from severe facial wounds. He is the first surgeon to consider a patient’s appearance in surgery. Gillies and his colleagues treated over 5000 servicemen by 1921 🦠 battlefield were dirty and gangrene was common. Trench foot affected 70,000 soldiers. Sir Wright opposed pouring antiseptics in the wound, but said to get rid of foreign objects and clean with saline solution and the body heal naturally.This was a decent temporary solution. 🦴 the army leg splint (Keller-Blake splint) elevated and extended the broken leg in traction, helping the bones knit together. This is still used today.

Answer 66

🩸 blood could be kept fresh and usable for longer. British National blood transfusion service, 1946. large blood banks in USA and Britain. 🥗 rationing and food shortages meant in government, encourage people to grow their own food. This improved diet as fresh vegetables were healthy. 💊 by 1944 enough penicillin was produced to treat all allied forces in Europe 💸 over 1 million children were evacuated to the countryside where they had better meals and fresh air. This shocked the middle-class, who advocated for better children’s health. 🔪 Archibald McIndoe (Harold Gillies, cousin) use new drugs like penicillin to prevent infection when treating facial injuries. His work on reconstruction was respected all over, and he also encouraged his patients’ mental health. 🧼 posters were produced to encourage people to keep healthy. They warned about the dangers of poor hygiene, and a national immunisation program against diphtheria was launched. 🫀 Dwight Harken, American army surgeon based in London, cut into beating hearts and use their hands to remove bullets and shrapnel. His findings develop surgery after the war 🏥 during World War II the British government increase involvement in medical care and afterwards people still wanted that and William Beveridge proposed a free national health service for all