Health and Human Rights Flashcards
What are the different ways of measuring development?
GDP per Capita
Gini Coefficient
HDI
Happy Planet Index (HPI)
Why could intervention by the national government be used as a sign of development? Give an example of where this happened
In a developed country, often the needs of the people are a priority and the national government plays a huge role in managing social issues such as poverty and unemployment
Whereas in less developed nations the government is often too corrupt or doesn’t have the capital to do these things
e.g Evo Morales in Bolivia, reduced poverty and improved economic growth
What is Human capital?
Skills of the population: economic, political, cultural or social skills
Why is education important for development?
Provides people with skills and creates a skilled workforce which allows a country to develop economically
Why is there a gender imbalance the number of unschooled people in the world?
56% of unschooled people are women
This is because in some countries, especially Arab nations, women have fewer rights so don’t attend school
What factors can influence health and life expectancy?
Differences in lifestyles (smoking, alcohol, diet)
Levels of deprivation
Access to healthcare (vaccinations, regular check-ups)
Why does health and life expectancy vary across Africa?
Some countries like Kenya and Tanzania were able to improve their economies after debts were cancelled in 2005
However, others still struggle with corruption, high mortality rates and access to food and clean water
Compare and contrast social factors in two African nations with varying health and life expectancy
DRC. Algeria
GDP $800 per capita. Rapidly increasing GDP
L.E - 56 years 76 years
Worlds lowest HDI HDI of 0.736, Africas highest
40% children forced to work little child labour
What was the trend in health and life expectancy in the developed world over the last 30 years?
Life expectancy and healthcare have continued to increase and levels of infant mortality continue to fall
However, variations still exist due to cultural and lifestyle differences as well as differences in spending
The more a country spends, the better the healthcare is.
However, the USA has the highest spending on healthcare globally yet ranks 30th for infant mortality rate.
Describe and explain the regional differences in life expectancy in the UK
Life expectancy is lowest in North-East and North-West, this is due to a higher proportion of people smoking and high alcohol consumption
Life expectancy is highest in the South-East and South-West as spending on fresh farm foods is higher so diet is better.
Where does Australia rank in the world for life expectancy?
One of the highest
What is the life expectancy in Australia?
over 80 years
one of only 7 countries with life expectancy over 80
Describe differences in life expectancy among different populations in Australia?
Despite the life expectancy being so high, the Aboriginal and Torres Straight Islander (ATSI) people have some social indicators as low as sub-Saharan Africas
They have higher levels of Smoking, deprivation, alcohol abuse, disease and injury as well as a lower life expectancy (71 years, over 10 years less than national average)
Give an example of a country with very high social development
France
one of the highest levels of government spending (56% of GDP)
Majority of healthcare is state funded
High welfare and pension payments
High education spending (£8500 per student per year)
Give an example of a country that is very economically developed but has low social development
Saudi Arabia
Ruled by the elite royal family
Very strong economy due to the oil industry
Very high-quality healthcare and 80% state-funded
Education standards are low and so managerial jobs are taken by overseas employees
What is Neo-liberalism?
The process of opening up free trade markets in order to try and improve economic development
Many argue it is not in the best interest of developing nations as it allows TNCs to exploit them for natural resources.
What are the MDG’s and when were they introduced?
The Millennium Development Goals, aim to reduce the number of people living in poverty and reduce inequality all over the world
Introduced in 2000
Have the MDG’s been achieved?
Number of people in extreme poverty has fallen by 56%
Rate of child mortality has fallen by 50%
Improvements in girls attendance at primary school
Increase in number of women in parliament in 90% of countries
2.1 billion people have improved sanitation
Yes there have been improvements however there is still a lot more that can be done
What are the SDG’s and when were they introduced?
Sustainable development goals, they aim to end poverty for all by 2030 and focus on ways to economically develop while addressing health and tackling climate change
introduced in 2015
What is the ECHR and when was it introduced?
European Convention on Human Rights
Consists of 14 articles protecting a range of human rights
Though it itself is not legally binding it is now included in the laws of 47 countries.
Enables human rights cases to be heard at national courts
Introduced in 1950
What is the UDHR and when was it introduced?
The Universal Declaration of Human Rights
Signed in 1948, outlines 30 basic human rights that everyone is entitled to
It is not legally binding however it formed the basis for other bills that were legally binding
was signed by 48 countries in 1948, now many more have signed
Give an example of a country that chose not to sign the UDHR and why?
South Africa
Wanted to protect its apartheid system which violated many of the human rights outlined in the UDHR
What year did Britain introduce the Human Rights Act?
1998
What are the benefits of the UK’s Human Rights Act?
Makes human rights legally enforceable
HR cases can be heard in British courts instead of European ones
Requires all public bodies and private organisations to treat everyone equally
Ensures new laws passed by parliament are compatible with the ECHR
Why do some people disagree with the UK’s Human Rights Act?
Believe that it is affecting British sovereignty by making them more Eurocentric
British courts are bound by decisions made by European courts
Was the UK’s Human Rights Act relevant during the Iraq war?
There was much debate about if the Human Rights Act applied to the actions of the British soldiers in Iraq
There were allegations of British soldiers subjecting Iraqis to beatings and interrogation
£20 million was paid in compensation for 326 cases of alleged abuse in Iraq
What is the Geneva convention?
A body of rules used to protect civilians and those no longer fighting during a conflict
Nearly all the countries in the world have signed it
They are often used to determine what constitutes a ‘War Crime’
What are some criticisms of the Geneva Convention?
Violations rarely go to trial
141 countries (including the USA, at Guantanamo bay) are reported to still use torture
Many claim the convention is being violated by both sides in the Syrian War
Therefore, many question its effectiveness
Give an example of when a war crime was successfully prosecuted
Radovan Karadzic
Former Bosnia Serb leader was convicted of genocide and crimes against humanity for his actions in the Yugoslav wars
Give an example of a country that prioritises mainly human rights
USA
Promotes human rights in the UN Human Rights Council
2015-2016 it supported resolutions to focus on HR in Syria, Burundi and Yemen
Drew attention to HR abuses in Cambodia
However, many believe that their actions for human rights have ulterior motives like securing oil in Syria
Give an example of a country that promotes Economic development over Human Rights
Singapore
Has one of the world’s highest GDP per capita due to lots of overseas trade
The government claims the reason for this is ‘preserving order’
It limits rights like freedom of expression, peaceful assembly and freedom of the press
Uses capital punishment and the death penalty, and has issues around human trafficking
Describe the government system in China and their policies on Human Rights
Single-party authoritarian state, governed by the Chinese Communist Party
No general elections
The president holds all political power
Government limits freedom of expression, association, assembly and religion
Argues that HR are western ideas and threaten power
More recently, better education and wealth have led to calls for more freedom
Describe the government system in India and their policies on Human Rights
Democratic system made up of individual states and the Lower House of Parliament
They protect human rights such as freedom of preach, religion and society
Despite significant progress, many are still concerned about inequalities in gender, disability and discrimination
Name an international NGO that aim to tackle corruption
Transparency International
What is the name of the index that measures Corruption?
Corruption perception index (CPI)
Which countries are most and least corrupt according to the CPI?
Least:
Denmark Finland Sweden New Zealand UK
Most:
Somalia North Korea Haiti Afghanistan Iraq
What were ATSI people subject to before 1967?
Not considered Australian citizens
Not allowed to vote
Forced to live in reservations
Could have their children forcibly removed to be raised in white-run institutions
What is the Australian government doing to protect the rights ATSI people?
Preventing racial discrimination - especially in workplace and access to services
Advocating social justice - Maintains their right to a cultural identity
Describe some of the differences in health and education between ATSI people and other Australians
Life expectancy is 10 years lower
Higher levels of drug and alcohol abuse, homelessness and are more likely to smoke
15x more likely to go to prison
More people lack basic literacy skills (30% of adult ATSI population were lacking)
What was the name of the initiative started by the Australian government to improve ATSI equality?
Closing the Gap initiative
Has the ‘Closing the Gap’ initiative been effective?
Pros:
The life expectancy gap reduced by 0.8 years for men
ATSI deaths from circulatory disease fell by 45%
ATSI infant mortality rate fell by 64%
Cons:
The life expectancy gap for women only closed by 0.1 years
Avoidable deaths for ATSI were still 3x higher than other Australians
ATSI deaths from respiratory disease only fell by 27%
What is R2P?
Responsibility to Protect
Means that if a country fails to protect its own people then it is the role of the international community to intervene
What are the 4 forms of intervention?
Development aid
Trade Embargoes
Military Aid
Military Action
What is Development Aid?
Money given to developing countries to help them to develop
Mostly comes from developed countries (e.g USA), IGO’s (e.g IMF) or NGOs
What are the two types of development aid?
Bi-lateral - Directly from one country to another
Multi-lateral - From donor nation to IGO, the IGO then distributes that to appropriate nations
What are trade embargoes?
A ban that restricts trade
It encourages a country to change its actions
Usually implemented in response to a threat to international security or human rights abuses
In 2017, UK had arms embargoes on 17 countries
What is Military aid?
Aid given as money, weapons or expertise to help a country defend itself
Charities worry that less money is being given to fight poverty and more to fight wars
USA is the biggest contributor, often to protect US interests
What are the two types of Military Action give examples?
Direct intervention - air strikes and ground troops. In 2003 USA and UK took direct action against Saddam Hussein in Iraq
Indirect Military Action - Providing military assistance. 2017, UK trained Nigerian forces to provide security
Why is there often conflict between a countries national sovereignty and the UNs R2P?
National sovereignty is the idea that a country has the right to govern its own people
However, when they are governing in a way that is causing human rights abuses the R2P infringes their national sovereignty to benefit the people
Give an example of where there was tension between national sovereignty and R2P
Libya
Colonel Gaddafi’s government were committing human rights abuses
The government failed to meet its responsibility to protect its citizens so UK and French forces intervened
What are the two types of development aid?
Charitable gifts - funded through public donations or government funding. Can be both bilateral and multilateral
Loans - Provided by IGOs like World Bank and IMF. Can be used to build infrastructure, fight corruption and manage resources. Often come with SAPs which determine what it can be spent on
What are the positive and negative impacts of ODA in recent years?
Positive:
Healthcare aid (especially vaccination programmes) has almost eradicated some diseases e.g polio
ODA has helped to provide mosquito nets to many African countries. Infection rate fell by 37% and mortality by 60%
Gender equality is improving in many countries but not all
Negatives:
Much aid is lost to corruption
Aid can be used by political elites to ensure they remain in power, such as Zimbabwe’s President Mugabe
They can become aid-dependent which is bad for the countries development in the long run
Give an example of where Development aid projects have caused environmental damage
Nigeria’s Niger Delta
Discovery of large oil reserves here led to the exploitation by TNC’s such as Shell
Oil spills are common, in 2014 there were 550 spills which polluted soil and water
Burning off of natural gas during oil extraction causes acid rain which kills plants
Why is it often difficult to justify military intervention and what do most countries use as their reason? use an example
It must be seen as both justified and proportionate by the international community otherwise it may be seen as a threat to international security
It is easier to justify on the ground of protecting human rights
Libya 2011, military intervention from UK and USA was justified due to the human rights abuses. However many argue that they actually just wanted to secure oil supplies
Describe the argument on countries sending military aid to nations with poor human rights records
Supporters:
Stopping the aid would threaten global security
Stopping the aid would not stop the human rights abuses
They can pressure the recipient nations with conditions on the aid
Critics:
The donor nations care more about the trade than the human rights
Ignoring human rights abuses condones them
Supporting a repressive government is wrong
The aid could be used to commit further abuses
Give an example of a country that USA gives aid to despite poor human rights
Colombia
One of the biggest recipients of US military aid, $10 billion between 2000 and 2015
Has poor human rights with reports of torture being used by the military
USA argues that the aid helps to fight militant groups and drug trafficking
USA imposes human rights conditions on the aid
NGOs argue they only withhold a small amount of the aid if the conditions are not met
What is the ‘War on Terror’?
After 9/11 President Bush declared the war on terror to protect the USA and its allies from terrorist attacks
Bush sent troops into Iraq and Afghanistan, claiming they were the ones who supported terrorism (despite many thinking the 9/11 attackers were Saudi)
Protecting human rights was also used as the USA and UK showed satellite images of weapons of mass destruction (WMDs) saying that they threatened global security. No WMDs were ever found in either country
What is extraordinary rendition?
A technique that the USA use to get around laws on using torture in interrogation
Involves transferring suspects abroad (to Cuba) to interrogate them in secrecy
What is Guantanamo Bay?
A US Military camp in Cuba
Since the war in Afghanistan it has been used to hold suspects in the ‘War on Terror’
The US have been accused of using torture there
The US claims it uses ‘enhanced interrogation techniques’
Why is it difficult to measure the success of interventions?
Success has varying defintions
Some countries cannot collect data accurately
Interventions can span many years (e.g the MDGs) and improvements may have been made naturally
External factors (e.g food prices) can affect outcomes
Data outcomes are interpreted differently by different people
What are geopolitical interventions?
Interventions using global policies and trade
e.g the MDGs
Why do many countries and IGOs believe democracy to be an important goal of intervention?
It leaves to other socio-economic changes
Countries become less willing to support criminal organisations
It is easier for military and economic ties to be formed
Countries are less likely to go to war
What is Democracy aid?
Aid is given to try and promote democracy in a nation
Supports fair elections and the development of political parties
Strengthens government institutions like parliament
Defends civil and political rights
What is freedom of expression and why is it important in promoting democracy?
A fundamental right outlined by the UDHR
Gives the right to speak freely
Enables people to criticise the government and leaders
It is a cornerstone of democracy as people must be allowed to make decisions and speak about the different parties freely to make a decision
What are the different ways of measuring success of interventions?
Democracy
Economic Development
Social improvements
Why is economic growth a factor in the success of interventions?
It shows that there have been improvements in trade
Economic growth is the foundation for many social improvements as well as it provides jobs, increases wages and reduces poverty
Give examples of where intervention has led to economic growth
South Korea and Singapore both used to receive US aid, they are now both beneficial trading partners with the US
China’s aid to sub-Saharan Africa has resulted in higher rates of employment and economic growth
What is ‘Aid for Trade’?
A WTO initiative to help developing nations improve their trade
Helps them to:
Develop trade strategies
Negotiate better deals
Build infrastructure such as roads and communications
Give an example of a country where ‘Aid for Trade” was successful
Uganda
in 2013, 48% of their ODA was ‘aid for trade’
In the same year, Uganda's: Exports increased by 144% GDP per capita doubled poverty dropped by 10% life expectancy rose by 12 years infant mortality fell from 86 per 1000 to 38 HDI rose from 0.393 to 0.483
Give an example of successful development aid
West Africa, Ebola outbreak
First cases recorded in 2014
in 21 months, 28,000 cases recorded with 11,300 deaths
WHO declared it an emergency and sent in teams of health workers
UN Security Council held a rare emergency meeting to assess it
Long-term development aid funded general health services
by Jan 2016, the WHO declared it disease-free
Give an example of failed development aid
Haiti
Haiti is vulnerable to natural hazards, has high levels of poverty and relies on aid
One of the world poorest and worst governed countries
Jobs are done by aid workers and not local people, so government systems are weak
Skilled locals work for NGOs rather than Haitian organisations
Corrupt government steal aid money
Has a very high Gini Coefficient meaning it is very unequal
Economic development has been small despite the amount of aid
Give an example of a country where aid actually increased inequality
Bangladesh
Happens because:
Corruption by the political elite
Countries act in their own interest and decide how and where to spend aid
Aid agencies favour large projects due to publicity rather than smaller more effective projects
How might countries use development to promote their foreign policy, give examples?
To develop military alliances - Jordan received $750 million in return for support against IS
To access resources - China has provided aid for the development of infrastructure in Zambia and Tanzania so it can access more resources
To gain political support in IGOs and NGOs - India wants a permanent seat on the UN Security Council, it directs FDI to nations who may support them
What are the socio-economic and political costs of direct military intervention?
Leads to loss of life on both sides
Leads to physical and mental injuries
High economic costs. Iraq war cost $2 trillion
People can lose faith in government. Tony Blair lost his reputation after the UK’s role in the Iraq war
What were the aims of the Iraq war?
Remove dictator Saddam Hussein
Protect civilians from Saddam Hussein’s rumoured WMD’s
Prevent Human rights abuses
What were the benefits of the Iraq war?
Saddam Hussein was removed from power
Early development efforts succeeded
US-funded vaccination programme reduced infant mortality by 75%
Iraq held its first free election in over 50 years
What were the negatives of the Iraq war?
No traces of WMD’s were found
Iraq was left with no real systems to restore order and democracy, protect human rights and grow economically
Islamist militant groups took advantage of instability
Animosity between Sunni and Shia muslims has worsened
Corruption has worsened
Human rights still remain a huge issue, many argue they have worsened
What are the improvements for human rights often like over time after direct military intervention/
Often see short term improvements when an oppressive regime is removed
However, without proper systems to develop afterwards political instability leaves a power vaccum
This is often filled by extremist groups leading to even worsened human rights in the long term
Short term improvements, long term failure
Give an example of a successful non-military intervention
Timor-Leste
Was a Portuguese colony until it declared independence in 1975, 9 days later it was invaded by Indonesia
The UN tried to resolve this but anti-independence militia killed 7,000 people and displaced 40,000
To pressurise Indonesia, arms embargoes were put in place by UK and USA and Indonesia withdrew
UN took control and put in place structures to maintain law and order and promote development. In 2002 Timor-Leste became fully self-sufficient and independent
Give an example of the impacts of no military action
Rwanda
was seen as not worth intervening as it was thought that the unrest could be contained by the government
A civil war broke out and led to the genocide of 800,000 Rwandans in only 3 months
This left the country decimated and very unskilled
Critics argue if the international community had responded earlier and had intervened then the genocide could have been prevented
