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Health And Disease Flashcards

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AP® Biology flashcards Biology 101 flashcards
1
Q

Health definition

A

A state of complete physical, mental and social well-being, and not merely the absence of disease of infirmity

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2
Q

Disease definition

A

A condition where part of an organ doesn’t function properly. There are two types of disease communicable and non communicable.

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3
Q

What are communicable diseases?

A

Diseases that can be spread between individuals

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4
Q

What are non-communicable diseases?

A

Diseases that can’t be transmitted between individuals. They are rather caused by internal bodily faults, genetic disorders or life style
-a series of risk factors interacting

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5
Q

Pathogens definition

A

Pathogens are organisms such as viruses, bacteria, fungi and protists that cause communicable diseases.

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6
Q

What is the pathogen for cholera, how it it spread, what are the treatments and preventions? (Communicable disease)

A

A bacterium called vibrio cholerae.
Mainly diarrhoea but also thirst, rapid heart rate, dry mucus membranes and loss of skin elasticity
Treatment: rehydration and antibiotics
-via contaminated water sources so keep them clean

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7
Q

Pathogen for tuberculosis, symptoms, how it spreads, treatments and prevention?

A

A bacterium called mycobacterium tuberculosis.

  • leads to coughing and lung damage
  • spread through air bourne transmission when someone coughs
  • Infected people should avoid crowded public spaces, practice good hygiene and sleep alone. Their homes should also be well ventilated.
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8
Q

What is the pathogen for malaria, how it spreads, symptoms, treatment and prevention?

A

A protist

  • Damage to red blood cells and, in severe cases to the liver.
  • Mosquitos act as animal vectors (carriers) - they pass on the protist to humans but don’t get the disease themselves.
  • Use of mosquito nets and insect repellent to prevent mosquitos carrying the pathogen from biting people.
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9
Q

What pathogen causes stomach ulcers, symptoms, how it spreads and prevention?

A

A bacterium called helicobacter pylori

  • Stomach pain, nausea and vomiting
  • Oral transmission, e.g swallowing contaminated water or food.
  • Having clean water supplies and hygienic living conditions.
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10
Q

What is the pathogen for Ebola, symptoms, how it is spread and prevention?

A

Ebola virus

  • Haemorrhaging fever (a fever with bleeding)
  • spread via bodily fluids
  • prevention consists of isolating infected individuals and sterilising any areas where the virus may be present.
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11
Q

What is the pathogen for Chalara ash dieback, symptoms, how it is spread and prevention?

A

A fungus that infects trees

  • symptoms = Leaf loss and bark lesions (wounds)
  • Carries through the air by the wind. (It also spreads when disease ash trees are moved between areas.)
  • Removing young infected ash trees and replanting with different species. Restricting the import of movement of ash trees.
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12
Q

What are the stages of the lytic pathway? (Reproduction of viruses)

A

1) The virus attaches itself to a specific host cell and injects its genetic material into the cell.
2) The virus uses proteins and enzymes in the host cell to replicate its genetic material and produce the components of new viruses like viral proteins and nuclei acid
3) The viral components assemble
4) The host cell splits open, releasing the new viruses, which infect more cells allowing it to spread to another host

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13
Q

What are the stages of the lysogenic pathway? (Some viruses do this before entering the lytic pathway)

A

1) The injected genetic material is incorporated into the genome (DNA) of the host cell.
2) The viral genetic material gets replicated along with the host DNA every time the host cell divides - but the virus is dormant (inactive) and no new viruses are made.
3) Eventually a trigger (e.g the presence of a chemical)causes the viral genetic material to leave the genome and enter the lytic pathway

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14
Q

What are STI’s

A

Sexually transmitted infections

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15
Q

What is the pathogen for chlamydia? But what does it behave like?

A

Chlamydia is a kind of bacterium, but it behaves in a very similar way to a virus because it can only reproduce inside host cells.

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16
Q

Does chlamydia have symptoms? What can It result in?

A

Chlamydia doesn’t always cause symptoms, but it can result in infertility in men and women.

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17
Q

How can the spread of chlamydia be reduced?

A

By wearing a condom when having sex, screening individuals so they could be treated for the infections or avoiding sexual contact

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18
Q

What type of cell does HIV (human immunodeficiency virus) kill?

A

White blood cells, which are really important in the immune response

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19
Q

What does HIV eventually lead to?

A

AIDS (acquired immune deficiency syndrome).

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20
Q

What happens to a person infected with aids?

A

The infected persons immune system deteriorates and eventually fails - because of this, the person becomes very vulnerable to opportunistic infections by other pathogens.

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21
Q

How is HIV spread? How can it be prevented?

A

It’s spread via bodily fluids (e.g blood, semen, vaginal fluids).
One of the main ways to prevent it is to use a condom during sex.
Drug users should also avoid sharing needles.
Medication can reduce the risk of an infected individual passing the virus to others during sex (or a mother passing to her baby during pregnancy) so screening and proper treatment are also important

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22
Q

Physical plant defences=

What does the waxy cuticle on plant leaves/stems do?

A

It provides a barrier to stop pathogens entering the plant or pests from damaging it.
It may also stop water collecting on the leaf, which could reduce the risks infection by pathogens that are transferred by plants in water

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23
Q

Physical plant defences=

What do the cellulose cell walls that surround plant cells do?

A

They form a physical barrier against pathogens that make it past the waxy cuticle.

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24
Q

Chemical plant defences=

Explain some chemical plant defences?

A

Plants produce chemicals that help prevent damage such as antiseptics which kill bacteria and fungal pathogens.
They also produce chemicals to deter pests (e.g insects) from feeding on their leaves.

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25
Q

What chemical drugs from plants can be used to treat human diseases or relive symptoms?

A

Quinine - comes from the bark of the cinchona tree. For years it was the main treatment for malaria
Aspirin - is used to relieve pain and fever. It was developed from a chemical found in the bark and leaves of willow trees.

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26
Q

What are the human bodies physical barriers?

A

1) The skin
2) hairs and mucous in your nose
3) Cells in your trachea and bronchi

27
Q

How does the skin work as a physical barrier?

A

-The skin acts as a physical barrier to pathogens, and, if it gets damaged, blood clots quickly seal cuts and keep microorganisms out.

28
Q

How do hairs and mucus act as a physical barrier?

A

The hairs and mucus in your nose trap particles that could contain pathogens

29
Q

How do cells in your trachea and bronchi act as physical barriers?

A

cells in your trachea and bronchi also produce mucus, which traps pathogens.
Others cells that line the trachea and bronchi have cilia. These are hair like structures which waft the mucus up to the back of the throat where it can be swallowed

30
Q

Why do memory lymphocytes help fight disease?

A

There is a faster secondary response as there are already antibodies produced to fight it

  • this means the process is quicker and more antibodies are produced
  • this process is what happens when you are immunised
31
Q

What are the advantages and disadvantages of immunisation?

A
  • large epidemics can be prevented due to herd immunity whereby more people are vaccinated so less people can pass on the disease
  • fatal diseases have been eradicated like small pox
  • it doesn’t always work and people can have bad side effects to a vaccination
32
Q

Why can antibiotics only be used to treat bacterial infections?

A

Because they inhibit cell processes in the bacterium but not the host organism, no effect on viruses as they take over the host organism
-this makes it hard to develop drugs that kill the virus but not your cell

33
Q

What are monoclonal antibodies?

A

Produced from lots of clones of a single B-lymphocyte making them identical and they will only target one specific protein antigen

34
Q

How are monoclonal antibodies made?

A

-a mouse is vaccinated to start the formation of antibodies
-spleen cells (lymphocytes) that from antibodies are collected from the mouse in an operation
-these are fused with a tumour cell called myeloma cells as they grow and divide lots as lymphocytes wouldn’t on their own
-this creates hibridoma cells which are
collected and purified

35
Q

How are monoclonal antibodies used to locate tumours and blood clots?

A
  • designed to bind to these cells/proteins
  • attach to a radioactive element and inject into the body
  • take a picture using a camera which detects radiation and a bright spot should indicate where the clot or tumour is
  • useful to see side, location and if it is spreading
36
Q

How are monoclonal antibodies used to target cancer?

A
  • an anti cancer drug is attached to a monoclonal antibody and given to a patient through a drip
  • they target specific cells as only bond to the tumour markers(hug specificity) killing the cancer cells but not other nearby cells
  • these are better than radiotherapy as that can effect normal body cells as-well and there are more worse side effects. It also reduces the amount of drug needed due to their high specificity
37
Q

What are the drawbacks of monoclonal antibodies?

A

-due to their monospecificity it limits their application as minor changes in their antigenic epitope May effect their ability to bind and function

38
Q

How are monoclonal antibodies used for pregnancy tests?

A

A hormone HCG is found in the urine of pregnant women and pregnancy test sticks detect this
-this is because the strip has some antibodies to the hormone stuck to it and the part you pee on has antibodies with blue beads attached

39
Q

How do you know if your pregnant or not using monoclonal antibodies?

A
  • if pregnant the hormone binds to the antibodies and the urine moves up the stick carrying the hormone and the beads
  • these bind to the hormone on the strip turning it blue (positive result)
  • if not the urine still moves up the stick carrying the blue beads but there’s nothing to stick the blue beads onto the strip so doesn’t go blue
40
Q

How are plant diseases detected by observation in a lab?

A

-by changing environmental condition and observing ant change in the plants symptoms one can see if the plant is diseased or if the symptoms were due to something else

41
Q

How are plant diseases detected by diagnostic testing?

A
  • identifies the presence of specific pathogens

- detecting antigens or DNA of pathogen in the plant allows the pathogen to be identified and disease diagnosed

42
Q

How are plant diseases detected by distribution analysis?

A

Pathogens spread in different ways so pathologists can analyse the distribution of diseased plants to indent oh the kind of pathogen involved
-e.g. random distribution could suggest and airborne pathogen

43
Q

How do you calculate the size of the inhibition zone?

A
  • visually, the larger the inhibition zine the more bacteria killed to the more effective the antibiotic is
  • or using the area (area of a circle where radius is half diameter)
44
Q

What is stage 1 and 2 of the aseptic technique?

A
  • Petri dish and growth medium must be sterile before use so place in an autoclave machine which uses steam at high pressures and temperatures to remove microorganisms
  • before being used to transfer bacteria, sterilise the inoculating loop by passing it through a hot flame
45
Q

What are stages 3,4 and 5 of the aseptic technique?

A
  • liquid bacterial culture should be kept in a culture vial with a lid which should only be removed when transferring bacteria (this avoids microbe contamination and too much liquid mean they will spread)
  • tape the lid on to remove airborne microbes entering
  • strobe upside down so drops of condensation don’t fall onto the agar
46
Q

How does immunity work?

A
  • Exposure to a pathogen which has a specific antigenic surface which triggers an immune response and production of antibodies
  • antibodies bind onto these antigens specifically so can be found by others and destroyed
  • the antigens also produce memory lymphocytes high stay in the body after the infection to create a faster secondary response with more antibodies produced
47
Q

What are the local, national and global effects of non communicable diseases?

A
  • patterns in certain diseases putting pressure on local resources and hospitals
  • costly for NHS as if more people are ill less people can work to help the economy and have to pay more doctors and have more resources
  • malnutrition in emerging countries can hold back a county’s development and therefore their impact on the global economy
48
Q

How does smoking and alcohol consumption effect CVD and liver diseases?

A
  • nicotine increases heart rate and blood pressure which damages artery walls leading to a build up of fatty deposits restrict blood flow
  • also increases risk of blood clots blocking blood flow
  • drinking too much alcohol can destroy enzymes in your liver leading to permanent damage
49
Q

What impact does exercise and diet have in obesity and malnutrition?

A
  • diet with too many or too little nutrients leads to malnutrition
  • not enough exercise and haven’t a diet high in Fat and sugar increase chance of obesity as it leads to a build up of fatty material which would otherwise be burnt through respiration during exercise
50
Q

What is BMI?

A

Weight/ height squared

  • gives an indication of someone’s weight that corresponds to weather they are underweight, obese, etc
  • isn’t always accurate as doesn’t account for muscle mass but rather measures it as fat
51
Q

What is waist to hip distribution?

A

Waist circumference/hip circumference

  • the higher waist to hip ratio the more abdominal weight you’re likely to be carrying
  • more accurate than BMI
52
Q

What surgical procedures are there for CVD?

A
  • Stents inserted into arteries that keeps them open so blood can pass through to the heart, they have to take medication to stop blood clotting on the stent
  • bypass surgery involved rerouting an artery or vessel
  • whole heart replacement from a donor, yet this doesn’t always pump properly and drugs must be taken to avoid rejection
53
Q

What lifestyle changes can be made to treat CVD?

A
  • healthy balanced diet low in saturated fat
  • stop smoking
  • encouraged to exercise regularly
54
Q

What medicine is used to treat cardiovascular disease?

A
  • Satins reduce the amount of cholesterol in the bloodstream slowing the deposition of fatty material deducting risk of heat attacks
  • anticoagulants reduces likelihood of blood clots yet this can cause excessive bleeding
  • you can also reduce blood pressure to prevent damage to blood vessels
55
Q

What are viruses?

A
  • organisms that can’t divide on their own so take over a living cell
  • often considered non living and exist in an inert stage outside the host cell
  • consist of a strand of nucleic acid(rna or dna) surrounded by a protective protein coat (capsid)
  • some may also have a further membrane envelope or a tail section
56
Q

What are the symptoms of viral infections?

A
  • no symptoms for lysogenic as occurs after the viral infection but viral DNA remains in the cell and can do permanently
  • in lythic it takes over the cells metabolic activities so lots of symptoms
57
Q

What is the lythic pathway?

A
  • virus attaches itself to a specific host cells and insects it’s genetic material into the cell
  • the virus directs itself to the ribosome and uses proteins and enzymes in the host cell to replicate its genetic material and produces and assembles the components of a new virus(progeny phages) whilst killing the host cell’s DNA
  • host cell splits as becomes overcrowded releasing the new virus which infects more cells through bloodstream etc
58
Q

What is the lysogenic pathway?

A
  • the injected genetic material is incorporate into the genome of the host cell as a prophage
  • viral genetic material gets replicated along with the host DNA every time the host cell divides (but the virus is dormant and no new ones are made)
  • can alter the cells characteristics but doesn’t destroy it
  • eventually a triggers (e.g. presence of a chemical) causes the viral to leave the genome and enter the lythic pathway in some cases
59
Q

How do you stop communicable diseases spreading?

A
  • wash hands and sterilise equip,ent to remove bacteria
  • wear mouth/face protection to prevent the spread of airborne disease transmission
  • immunisation
  • avoid direct contact
60
Q

What are risk factors?

A

Thinks linked to an increase likelihood that a person will develop a certain disease (can be unavoidable e.g. age)

61
Q

What is clinical testing?

A
  • it is then tested on human healthy volunteers in trial to see if it has harmful side effects
  • of positive it can then be tested on people suffering from the illness and the optimum dose is found
  • double blind clinical trials where one is given the real drug and a placebo seeing the effects aside from human bias.
  • then approved by a Mexican agency
62
Q

What is preclinical testing for medicines?

A
  • following discovery development
  • drugs are first tested on humans cells and tissues in the lab
  • then the drug is tested in live animals finding out if it works, if it’s toxic and the best dosage to give
63
Q

What chemical barriers does the body have?

A
  • the stomach produces hydrochloric acid killing most pathogens
  • the eye produces a chemical called lysozyme in tears which kills bacteria on the surface of the eye

Biology (10 decks)

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