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Paediatrics > Haematological Disorders > Flashcards

Haematological Disorders Flashcards

1
Q

When is HbF very low in healthy children - when is it not?

A

By age 1
Increased proportions of HbF are indicators of severe inherited disorders of haemoglobin production - haemoglobinopathies

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2
Q

Hb at birth

A

14-21.5g/dl to compensate for low oxygen concentration in fetus

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3
Q

What happens to Hb after birth

A

Falls over first few weeks of life, mainly due to reduced red cell production, to 10g/dl at 2 months of age

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4
Q

What happens to Hb after birth in pre-term babies?

A

It has a steaper fall to a mean of 6.5-9g/dl at 4-8 weeks chronological age

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5
Q

What are the iron, B12 and folic acid stores like in term and preterm infants at birth and after birth?

A

Iron, B12 and folic acid are adequate at birth in term and preterm babies
However in preterm babies stores of iron and folic acid are lower and are depleted more quickly leading to deficiency after 2-4months if recommended daily intakes are not maintained by supplements

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6
Q

Anaemia value in neonate

A

Hb less than 14g/dl

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7
Q

Anaemia value in 1-12months old

A

Hb less than 10g/dl

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8
Q

Anaemia value in 1-12 years

A

Hb less than 11g/dl

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9
Q

What is red cell aplasia

A

Complete absence of red cell production

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10
Q

What is ineffective erythropoeisis?

A

Red cell production is normal/increased rate but differentiation or survival of red cells is defective

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11
Q

What are the main causes of iron deficiency anaemia x3

A

Inadequate intake (common in infants)
Malabsorption
Blood loss

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12
Q

Which milk is not good for maintaining infant iron levels?

A

Cows milk because it has a higher iron content than breast milk but only 10% of the iron is absorbed
Therefore infants should not be fed unmodified cows milk

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13
Q

At what Hb level do children become symptomatic with anaemia?

A

6-7g/dl

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14
Q

How do children with iron deficiency anaemia present?

A

Pica- eating non-food materials such as soil, chalk, gravel or foam rubber

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15
Q

What are indicators on blood tests of iron deficiency anaemia

A

Microcytic, hypochromic anaemia (low MCV and MCH)

Low serum ferritin

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16
Q

Management of iron deficiency anaemia in infants?

A

Increase oral iron intake with supplementation - Sytron or Niferex are best tolerated preparations
Or just increase iron rich foods

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17
Q

What are the 3 main causes of red cell aplasia in children?

A

1) Diamond-Blackfan anaemia - congenital red cell aplasia
2) Transient erythroblastopenia of childhood
3) Parvovirus B19 infection in children with haemolytic anaemia

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18
Q

Diagnostic features of red cell aplasia x4

A

Low reticulocyte count despite normal Hb
Normal bilirubin
Negative direct antiglobulin/Coombs test
Absent red cell precursors on bone marrow examination

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19
Q

What is Diamond-Blackfan anaemia?

A

It is a rare congenital disease of red cell aplasia

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20
Q

Inheritance of Diamond-Blackfan anaemia

A

20% family history - remaining 80% are sporadic mutations

RPS (ribosomal protein) genes implicated in some cases

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21
Q

Presentation of Diamond-Blackfan anaemia

A

Most present at 2-3 months of age but 25% present at birth

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22
Q

Features of Diamond-Blackfan anaemia x2

A

Anaemia

Also congenital abnormalities such as short stature or abnormal thumbs

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23
Q

Treatment of Diamond-Blackfan anaemia x2

A

Oral steroids

Monthly red cell transfusions for children not responsive to steroids

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24
Q

What is transient erythoblastopenia of childhood?

A

Red cell aplasia usually triggered by viral infections

Same haemotological features as D-Blackfan anaemia

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25
Q

Prognosis of transient erythroblastopenia of childhood

A

Always recovers - usually within several weeks (hence differs from d-blackfan)

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26
Q

Inheritance of transient erythroblastopenia of childhood

A

No family history

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27
Q

When does haemolysis lead to anaemia?

A

When the bone marrow can no longer increase red cell production to compensate for the premature destruction of red cells

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28
Q

Main causes of haemolytic anaemias in children? What is uncommon children

A

Intrinsic abnormalities of RBCs (membrane and enzyme disorders and haemoglobinopathies)
Immune haemolysis is uncommon

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29
Q

What does haemolysis from increased RBC breakdown lead to? x4

A

Anaemia
Hepatomegaly and splenomegaly
Increased blood levels of unconjugated bilirubin
Increased urinary urobilinogen

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30
Q

Diagnostic clues to haemolytic anaemia x4

A

Increased reticulocyte count
Unconjugated bilirubinaemia and urinary urobilinogen
Abnormal appearance of red blood cells on film (spherocytes, sickle shaped or very hypochromic)
Increased red blood cell precursors in bone marrow

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31
Q

Incidence of hereditary spherocytosis

A

1 in 5000 live births in caucasians

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32
Q

Inheritance of hereditary spherocytosis

A

Usually autosomal dominant inheritance - BUT in 25% there is no family history and it is sporadic mutation

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33
Q

What is pathology of hereditary spherocytosis?

A

Mutation in gene for protein in red blood cell membrane - therefore RBC looses part of its membrane when it goes through the spleen
Therefore reduced surface-to-volume ratio and cell becomes spherical
Therefore less deformable than normal RBC and destruction of microvasculature of spleen

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34
Q

What are the clinical features of hereditary spherocytosis? x5

A

Clinical manifestations vary and patients can be completely asymptomatic or present during childhood or be intermittent - but can have:

  • Jaundice
  • Anaemia
  • Mild-moderate splenomegaly
  • Aplastic crisis with parvovirus B19
  • Gallstones
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35
Q

Management of hereditary spherocytosis x2

A

Many have mild and therefore only require folic acid supplementation
Splenectomy is beneficial but only indicated if poor growth or troublesome symptoms - usually deferred until after 7 years old because of risk of sepsis

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36
Q

Management of aplastic crisis in hereditary spherocytosis

A

Usually requires 1 or 2 blood transfusions over 3-4 weeks whilst no red blood cells are produced

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37
Q

What is incidence of Glucose-6-phosphate dehydrogenase deficiency?

A

G6PD is commonest red cell enzymopathy - affects 100million people worldwide
10-20% of individuals from central africa, mediterranean and the middle east and far east

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38
Q

What is pathology of G6PD deficiency?

A

G6PD is an enzyme required to prevent oxidative damage to red cells - therefore red cells lacking the enzyme are susceptible to oxidant-induced haemolysis

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39
Q

Inheritance of G6PD deficiency?

A

It is x-linked therefore predominantly affects males. Heterozygous females are usually clinically normal and homozygous females (or one deletion + one mutation) will be affected

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40
Q

Clinical presentation of G6PD in children x2

A

1) Neonatal jaundice - onset in first 3 days of life - severe
2) Acute haemolysis precipitated by infection, certain drugs, fava beans (broad beans) and naphthalene (mothballs)

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41
Q

Details of haemolysis in G6PD - where does it occur and what does it cause x4

A

Mostly intravascular
Causes fever, malaise, passage of dark urine
Rapid fall in Hb

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42
Q

Diagnosis of G6PD

A

Between episodes almost all patients have a completely normal blood picture therefore diagnosis by looking at G6PD activity
During an episode G6PD may be misleadingly high due to increased reticulocyte production

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43
Q

Management of G6PD

A

Parents should be given advice about signs of acute haemolysis and provided with a list of what to avoid
Transfusions are rarely required even for acute episodes

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44
Q

When do B-thalassaemias present?

A

Delayed until after 6months of age when most of HbF (no B chains) has been replaced by HbA (with B chain)

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45
Q

Prevalence of sickle cell disease

A

1 in 2000 live births in UK

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46
Q

What does sickle cell disease encompass?

A

Sickle cell anaemia, sickle cell trait, HbSC disease and Sickle B-thalassaemia

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47
Q

What is HbSC disease?

A

One HbS and one HbC from other parent - HbC is point mutation in B-globin therefore also have no HbA

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48
Q

Features of sickle B-thalassaemia

A

Also have no normal B chains therefore no HbA and similar symptoms to sickle cell anaemia

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49
Q

Features of sickle cell trait?

A

About 40% HbS - do not have symptoms but are carriers and can pass on to children

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50
Q

Pathology of sickle

A

HbS polymerises forming stiff sickle shape with can get trapped in microcirculation - causing vaso-occlusion and therefore ischaemia
Exacerbated by low O2 tension, dehydration and cold

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51
Q

Clinical features of sickle x7

A 
Anaemia (moderate 6-10g/dl)
Infection 
Painful vaso-occlusive crises
Acute anaemia (eg. in crises)
Priapism 
Splenomegaly 
Long term problems
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52
Q

Types of infection risk in sickle

A

Infection from encapsulated organisms such as pnemococci and haemophilus influenzae
Increased osteomyelitis by salmonella
Due to hyposplenism and microinfarction in spleen in infancy

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53
Q

When is sepsis risk greatest in sickle

A

In early childhood - post-spleen destruction in infancy

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54
Q

Where is most commonly affected in painful crises of sickle x2

A

Bones of limbs and spines

Chest most serious as leads to hypoxia

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55
Q

What can cause acute anaemia in sickle? x3

A 
Haemolytic crises (sometimes associated with infections)
Aplastic crises (B19)
Sequestration crises (sudden splenic or hepatic enlargement due to accumulation of sickled cells in spleen)
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56
Q

What needs to be done if priaprism in sickle

A

Urgent treatment with exchange transfusion as may lead to fibrosis in corpora cavernosa and erectile impotence

57
Q

What age is splenomegaly common in sickle?

A

Common in younger children but not older children

58
Q

What are long-term problems for sickle?x 6

A

Stroke and cognitive problems
Adenotonsillar hypertrophy - causing sleep aponea syndrome
Cardiac enlargement, heart failure - from anaemia
Renal dysfunction
Pigment gallstones
Leg ulcers

59
Q

Prophylaxis in sickle? x3

A

Fully immunised against pneumococcal, haem infl type B and meningococcus infections
Daily oral penicillin throughout childhood
Folic acid

60
Q

Lifestyle managements in sickle

A

Avoid cold, dehydration, excessive exercise, undue stress or hypoxia

61
Q

Treatment of acute sickle crisis x4

A

Oral or IV analgesia
Good hydration
Antibiotics for infection
Oxygen if O2 sats reduced

62
Q

Which 3 acute sickle crisis require exchange transfusion in sickle?

A

Priaprism, acute chest crisis and stroke

63
Q

Common painful presentation of sickle in childhood?

A

Hand-foot syndrome due to dacylitis causing swelling and pain in fingers and/or feet from vaso-occlusion

64
Q

Management for children with recurrent sickle crises? x2

A

Hydroxyurea which increases HbF concentration
requires monitoring for white blood cell suppression

If this doesn’t work then bone marrow transplant can be offered

65
Q

Cure rate in sickle with bone marrow transplant

A

Cure rate is 90%

5% risk of fatal transplant-rated complications

66
Q

How is sickle diagnosed early

A

Guthrie heelprick test at birth

67
Q

SC disease difference from sickle anaemia x3

A

Have fewer painful crises but may develop proliferative retinopathy in adolescence - therefore check eyes periodically
Also prone to osteonecrosis of hips and shoulders

68
Q

Where is B-thalassaemia common

A

Indian subcontinent, mediterranean and middle east

69
Q

Two different types of b-thalassaemia?

A

Major and intermedia- intermedia is milder

70
Q

Clinical features of b-thalassaemia x3

A

Severe anaemia - transfusion dependant from 3-6months of age
Failure to thrive/grow
Extramedullary haemopoiesis - prevented by transfusions but if no transfusions then hepatosplenomegaly and bone marrow expansion - classic facies with maxillary overgrowth and frontal bossing

71
Q

Management of b-thalassaemia

A

Lifelong transfusions

Can lead to iron overload therefore iron chelation with desferrioxamine or deferasirox from age 2-3

72
Q

Cure for b-thalassaemia

A

Bone marrow transplantation (90-95% success with HLA matched identical twin)

73
Q

B-thalassaemia trait features x3

A

Usually asymptomatic
Hypochromic and microcytic red cells
Anaemia mild or absent

74
Q

What happens in a-thalassaemia major

A

All four a-globin genes are deleted therefore hydrops fetalis - death in utero or within hours of birth
Can only survive with intrauterine transfusions and then lifelong

75
Q

What happens in HbH disease - a-thalassaemia

A

Three a-globin chains deleted

Mild-moderate anaemia but occasionally they are transfusion dependant

76
Q

Features of alpha-thalassaemia trait

A

1 or 2 chain deletions
Usually asymptomatic
Anaemia is mild or absent

77
Q

What can b and a-thalassaemia traits be confused with?

A

Diagnostically they can be confused with mild iron deficiency

78
Q

What is immune haemolytic anaemia of the newborn due to?

A

Antibodies against blood group antigens - most important are anti-D, anti-A or anti-B (ABO blood group)
Mother is always negative and baby is always positive therefore mother makes antibodies against baby’s blood group

79
Q

Diagnostic tool for immune haemolytic anaemia

A

Coombs test (direct anti-globulin) positive - only positive in antibody mediated anaemias

80
Q

Which haemolytic anaemias commonly present in neonatal period

A

Mostly due to G6PD deficiency or hereditary spherocytosis

Haemoglobinopathies rarely present with clinical features in neonatal period (but are detected on Guthrie)

81
Q

What is aplastic anaemia?

A

Bone marrow failure

- reduction or absence of all 3 main lineages in bone marrow

82
Q

What does aplastic anaemia lead to?

A

Peripheral blood pancytopenia - reduction of all blood cell types

83
Q

What causes aplastic anaemia?

A

Many are “idiopathic” because specific cause cannot be found
Some can be inherited
Some can be acquired (viruses eg. hepatitis, drugs or toxins)

84
Q

Clinical presentation of aplastic anaemia? x3

A

Anaemia due to reduced RBC
Infection due to reduced WBC
Bruising and bleeding due to thrombocytopenia

85
Q

What is Fanconi anaemia?

A

Most common inherited aplastic anaemia

86
Q

Inheritance of Fanconi anaemia?

A

Autosomal recessive condition

87
Q

Clinical features of Fanconi anaemia other than directly due to blood cells?

A

Majority of children also have congenital abnormalities including short stature, abnormal radii and thumbs, renal malformations and pigmented skin lesions

88
Q

How does Fanconi anaemia present?

A

Can present either with signs of bone marrow failure (not usually until age 5-6) or congenital abnormalities

89
Q

Management of Fanconi anaemia?

A

Bone marrow transplantation from healthy sibling because can progress to acute myeloid leukaemia

90
Q

What is Shwachman-Diamond syndrome?

A

Rare bone marrow failure - autosomal recessive disorder

91
Q

What features are present in Shwachman-Diamond syndrome? x3

A

Signs of bone marrow failure

Also pancreatic exocrine failure and skeletal abnormalities

92
Q

Risk with Fanconi anaemia and Shwachman-Diamond syndrome?

A

Both can advance to acute leukaemia

93
Q

What is a good way to establish if new onset bleeding disorder is acquired or inherited?

A

If previous surgical procedures or dental extractions were uncomplicated - suggests acquired

94
Q

What sort of bleeding disorder is associated with mucous membrane bleeding and skin haemorrhage?

A

Platelet disorders or von Willebrand disease

95
Q

What sort of bleeding disorder is associated with bleeding into muscles or joints?

A

Haemophilia

96
Q

What sort of disorder is associated with scarring and delayed haemorrhage

A

Disorders of connective tissue such as Marfans syndrome, osteogenesis or factor XIII deficiency

97
Q

Clotting factors in neonate?

A

Levels of all (except FVIII and fibrinogen) are lower and preterm infants have even lower values - therefore have to compare with values for gestational age

98
Q

How are haemophilia a and b inherited?

A

Both have x-linked recessive inheritance therefore only affect males

99
Q

Deficiency in haemophilia a

A

FVIII deficiency

100
Q

Deficiency in haemophilia b

A

FIX deficiency

101
Q

Which haemophilia is more common

A

haemophilia a is a lot more common

102
Q

Different types of both haemophilias

A

Disorder is graded as severe, moderate or mild

103
Q

Features of severe haemophilia

A

Recurrent spontaneous bleeding into joints and muscles - leads to crippling arthritis if not properly treated
Present usually towards end of 1st year when starting to crawl and walk

104
Q

How can haemophilia present if presents before crawling/walking age?

A

Can present in neonatal period (40%) with intracranial haemorrhage, bleeding post-circumcision or prolonged oozing from heel prick and venepuncture sites

105
Q

Inheritance of severity of haemophilia?

A

Severity usually remains constant within a family

106
Q

Acute management of haemophilia

A

Recombinant factor VIII or IX is given IV whenever there is acute bleeding
Usually raising level to 30% of normal is enough

107
Q

When do factor levels need to be raised above 30% of normal in haemophilia?

A

Major surgery or life threatening bleeds - require raising to 100% and then maintained at 30-50% for 2 weeks to prevent secondary bleed

108
Q

Prophylactic treatment for severe haemophilia a

A

Prophylactic FVIII - usually begins at age 2-3 years, given 2/3x per week

109
Q

Prophylactic treatment of mild haemophilia a

A

Desmopressin may allow mild haemophilia a to be managed without blood products
Ineffective in haemophilia b

110
Q

What is von Willebrand disease?

A

Quantitative or qualitative deficiency of vWF

111
Q

What does vWF do? x2

A

Faciliates platelet adhesion to damaged endothelium

Acts as carrier protein for FVIII

112
Q

Pathology of vWD?

A

Defective platelet plug formation and also deficient in FVIII

113
Q

Inheritance of vWD?

A

Autosomal dominant

114
Q

Presentation age of vWD?

A

Commonest subtype - type 1 (60-80%) usually fairly mild and often not diagnosed until puberty or adulthood

115
Q

Clinical features of vWD? x3

A

Bruising
Excessive, prolonged bleeding after surgery
Mucosal bleeding such as epistaxis and menorrhagia

116
Q

Management of mild vWD?

A

Mild can often be managed with desmopressin

117
Q

When do you need to be careful using desmopressin?

A

Need to be used with caution in children under 1 because can cause hyponatraemia due to water retention and may cause seizures if fluid intake is not strictly regulated

118
Q

Treatment of more severe vWD?

A

Treated with plasma derived FVIII concentrate (recombinant does not contain vWF therefore no good)

119
Q

What should be avoided in haemophilia and vWD patients? x3

A

IM injections, aspirin and NSAIDs

120
Q

What is the definition of thrombocytopenia?

A

Platelet count below 150 x10-9/L

121
Q

Definition and presentation of severe thrombocytopenia

A

Platelets below 20 x 10-9/l

Risk of spontaneous bleeding

122
Q

Definition and presentation of moderate thrombocytopenia

A

Platelets 20-50

Risk of excess bleeding during operations or trauma but low risk of spontaneous bleeding

123
Q

Definition and presentation of mild thrombocytopenia

A

Platelets 50-150

Low risk of bleeding unless there is a major operation or severe trauma

124
Q

What can thrombocytopenia result in? x4

A

Bruising, petechiae, purpura, mucosal bleeding (nose, gums)

125
Q

What is immune thrombocytopenia? (ITP)

A

Commonest cause of thrombocytopenia in childhood - caused by destruction of circulating platelets by antiplatelet IgG autoantibodies

126
Q

Typical presentation of ITP and age

A

Present between ages of 2 and 10 with onset often 1-2 weeks after viral infection

127
Q

Clinical features of ITP x5

A

Most children have a short history of days/weeks of
Petechiae, purpura and/or superficial bleeding
Can also cause mucosal bleeding and epistaxis

128
Q

Rare complication of ITP

A

Intracranial bleeding - rare but serious - mainly in those with a long period of severe thrombocytopenia

129
Q

Diagnosis of ITP

A

Diagnosis of exclusion

Examine bone marrow to exclude aplastic anaemia or leukaemia

130
Q

Management of ITP

A

80% of children have benign self-limiting disease - remitting within 6-8 weeks
But if persistent bleeding then oral prednisolone, IV anti-D or IV immunoglobulin
Platelet transfusions only for life-threatening haemorrhage

131
Q

What is chronic ITP

A

20% in whom the platelet count remains low 6months after diagnosis

132
Q

Management of chronic ITP

A

Supportive mostly
Drugs only for chronic bleeding
Monoclonal antibodies and other new drugs

133
Q

What is disseminated intravascular coagulation? (DIC)

A

Disorder characterised by coagulation pathway activation leading to fibrin deposition in microvasculature and consumption of coag factors and platelets and therefore bleeding

134
Q

Commonest causes of DIC x3

A

Severe sepsis or shock due to circulatory collapse (meningococcal septicaemia), or extensive tissue damage from trauma or burns

135
Q

Clinical features of DIC x3

A

Bruising, purpura and haemorrhage

136
Q

Management of DIC

A

Treat underlying cause whilst providing intensive care

Can give fresh frozen plasma, platelets and cryoprecipitate

137
Q

EG’s of prothrombotic disorders x4

A

Protein C and S deficiency
Antithrombin deficiency
Factor V Leiden

138
Q

When do prothrombotic disorders present?

A

C and S heterozygotes - mostly in second or third decade and rarely in childhood
C and S homozygotes rare - thrombosis and widespread haemorrhage and purpura in neonatal period

139
Q

Most common cause of thrombosis in children

A

95% of venous thromboembolic events in childhood are secondary to underlying disorder with hypercoagulable state

Paediatrics (16 decks)

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