Growth and Development- chapter 6 Flashcards
growth depends on
genetics, environment, and nutrition
Cephalocaudal
starts at the head and moves downward
Proximodistal
starts in the center and processes to the periphery
Differentiation
simple to complex progression of achievement of developmental milestones
growth and development
follow an orderly pattern characterized by periods of rapid growth and plateaus (spurts and lulls)
Childhood is divided into the following five stages:
Infant—birth to 1 year Toddler—1 to 3 years Preschool—3 to 6 years School-age—6 to 12 years Adolescence—12 to 18 years
Failure to Thrive
children who fall below the 5th percentile ranges on height and weight charts. For infants, it usually presents first with an absence of weight gain or weight loss
A few of the most common reflexes to watch for are:
Tonic neck/fencing reflex—disappears around 4–6 months
Moro/startle reflex—disappears around 4–6 months
Babinski’s—disappears by 1 year of age
2–3 months
Fine motor
Grasps toys, can open and close hands
Blows bubbles
Eyes follow object to midline
2–3 months
gross motor
Stretches legs out and kicks when lying on stomach or back
Supports upper body with arms when lying on stomach
Raises head and chest when lying on stomach
6–8 months
Fine motor
Bangs objects on table
Can transfer objects from hand to hand
start of pincer grasp
6–8 months
Gross motor
Supports whole weight on legs
Can sit unsupported by 7 or 8 months
Can roll from side to side
1 year
Fine motor
Begins to use objects correctly
Can hold crayon, may mark on paper
1 year
Gross motor
May walk two or three steps independently
Walks holding on to furniture
Pulls self up to stand
2–3 years
fine motor
Can draw simple shapes (e.g., a circle)
Learning to dress self
2–3 years
Gross motor
Learning to pedal tricycle
Kicks ball
Jumps
4–5 years
Fine motor
Brushes teeth
Learning to tie shoes
Uses scissors
Dresses independently
4–5 years
Gross motor
Hops on one foot
Throws a ball overhand
Goes up and down stairs independently
Piaget
-Development is a sequential and orderly process, moving from stages that are relatively simple to more complex
Cognitive acts occur as the child adapts to the surrounding environment.
The child’s experience with the environment naturally encourages growth and maturation.
The child must accommodate to new or complex problems by drawing on past experiences.
There can be overlap between the child’s age and stage of development. Each stage does not start and end at exactly the same age for each child.
Growth and development birth-1y
Weight: • Doubles by 5–6 months • Triples by 1 year Height: • Increase of 1 foot by 1 year of age Teeth: • Erupt by 6 months • Has six to eight deciduous teeth by 1 year of age
Toddler: age 1–3 years
Weight:
• Gains 8 oz or more a month from 1–2 years
• Gains 3–5 lb a year from 2–3 years of age
Height:
• From 1 to 2 years of age, grows 3–5 inches
• From 2 to 3 years of age, grows 2–2.5 inches per year
Teeth:
• By 3 years of age, has 20 deciduous teeth
Preschool: age 3–6 years
Weight:
• Gains 3–5 lb a year
Height:
• Grows 1.5–2.5 inches a year
School-age: age 6–12 years
Weight:
• Gains 3–5 lb a year
Height:
• Grows 1.5–2.5 inches a year
Adolescence: age 12–18 years
Puberty usually will last somewhere around 2–5 years.
Variations Weight: The gain that occurs during puberty years
• Girls: Gain 15–55 pounds
• Boys: Gain 15–65 pounds
Height: The growth that occurs during puberty years
• Girls: 2–8 inches
Growth occurs during puberty. Girls usually stop growing taller 2 years after the start of their menstrual periods.
• Boys: 4.5–12 inches
Sensorimotor—birth to 2 years:
The child learns through motor and reflex actions, and begins to understand that he or she is separate from the environment and from others.
Stage 1: Reflexes—birth to 2 months
The child understands the environment purely through inborn reflexes such as sucking.
Stage 2: Primary circular reactions—1 to 4 months
The child begins to coordinate reflexes and sensations. For example, he or she may find the thumb by accident, find pleasure in sucking it, then later repeat sucking it for pleasure.
Stage 3: Secondary circular reactions—4 to 8 months
The child focuses on his or her environment and begins to repeat actions that will trigger a response. For example, the child puts a toy rattle in his or her mouth.
Stage 4: Coordination of secondary schemata—8 to 12 months
To achieve a desired effect, the child will repeat the action, such as repeatedly shaking a rattle to make the sound.
Stage 5: Tertiary circular reactions—12 to 18 months
The child begins trial-and-error approaches: for example, making a sound to see whether it will get attention from the caregiver.
Stage 6: Inventions of new means/mental combinations—18 to 24 months
The child learns that objects and symbols represent events, such as that the appearance of a bowl and spoon means dinner is coming.
Preoperational—2 to 7 years
Application of language
Use of symbols to represent objects
Ability to think about things and events that are not immediately present
Oriented to the present; difficulty conceptualizing time
Thinking influenced by fantasy
Teaching must account for the child’s vivid fantasies and undeveloped sense of time
Concrete operational—7 to 11 years
`
Shows increase in accommodation skills Develops an ability to think abstractly and to make rational judgments about concrete or observable phenomena In teaching, give the opportunity to ask questions and explain things back to the nurse. This allows the child to mentally manipulate information.
Formal operational—11 years to adulthood
This stage brings cognition to its final form.
The individual no longer requires concrete objects to make rational judgments.
Individuals are capable of hypothetical and deductive reasoning.
Teaching for adolescents may be wide ranging because they can consider many possibilities from several perspectives.
Id
the basic sexual energy that is present at birth and drives the seeking of pleasure
Ego
—the realistic part of a person, which develops during infancy and searches for acceptable methods to meet impulses
Superego
—the moral and ethical system that develops in childhood and contains values as well as conscious thoughts
Rational intellect
—being able to think about others, and do what is right. Example: delayed gratification
Irrational desires
—following the unconscious mind, which is driven by uncontrollable instincts that are irrational and pleasure seeking. Example: getting what you want when you want it even if the timing is not right or others are affected negatively
psychosexual theory
based on the belief that experiences from our early childhood form the unconscious motivation for the things we do later in life as adults
Oral—birth to 1 year
Children at this stage are preoccupied with activities associated with the mouth.
Sexual urges are gratified with oral behaviors: sucking, biting, chewing, and eating.
Children who do not have their oral needs met may become thumb suckers or nail biters.
In adulthood, they may become compulsive eaters or smokers.
Normal development requires not depriving oral gratification, such as weaning too soon or a rigid feeding schedule
Anal—1 to 3 years of age
Preoccupied with the ability to eliminate
Sexual urges gratified by learning to voluntarily defecate
Sphincter muscles maturing
Phallic stage—3 to 6 years
Preoccupation with the genitals
Curious about childbirth, masturbation, and anatomic differences
Girls experience penis envy and wish they had one; boys suffer from castration anxiety, the fear of losing the penis
Children develop strong incestuous desire for caregiver of the opposite gender
Oedipal complex—attachment of boy to his mother Electra complex—attachment of girl to her father Children need to identify with caregiver of same gender to form male or female identity
Latency stage—6 to 11 years of age
Sexual drives submerged
Energy focus on socialization and increasing problem-solving abilities
Appropriate gender roles adopted
Oedipal or Electra conflicts resolved
Identifies with same-gender peers and same-gender caregiver
Superego developed to a point where it keeps id under control
Genital stage—begins at around 12 years of age and lasts to adulthood
Struggle with sexuality
Sexual desires return and are related to physiological changes and fluctuating hormones
Changing social relationships
Dealing with struggle of dependence and independence issues with parents
Learning to form loving, appropriate relationships
Must manage sexual urges in socially accepted ways
Freud’s Five Stages of Psychosocial Development
Infancy (birth to 1 year) Oral stage
Comforted through the mouth
Toddler (1–3 years) Anal stage
Derives gratification from control of bodily excretions
Preschool (3–6 years) Phallic stage
Becomes aware of self as sexual being
Identifies with the parent of the opposite sex, but by the end of stage will identify with same-sex parent
Oedipal complex: attachment of a boy to his mother
Electra complex: attachment of a girl to her father
School age (6–12 years) Latency stage
Focuses on peer relationships
Emphasis on privacy and understanding the body
Adolescent (12–18 years) Genital stage
Focus on genital function and relationships
Erik Erikson
Trust versus mistrust (birth to 1 year)
An infant requires that basic needs are met—food, clothing, touch, and comfort.
If these needs are not met, the infant will develop a mistrust of others.
If a sense of trust is developed, the infant will see the world as a safe place.
Play is usually considered a psychosocial activity.
During this stage play is referred to as solitary
Autonomy versus shame and doubt (1–3 years)
The child is learning to control bodily functions.
Independence starts to emerge; for example, toddlers control their worlds by deciding when and where elimination will occur.
They vocalize by saying no to something and direct their motor activity.
Children who are consistently criticized for showing independence and autonomy will develop shame and doubt in their abilities.
Toddlers also need to recognize the feelings and needs of others; excessive autonomy could lead to disregard for and an inability to play with others
Play during this stage is known as parallel
Initiative versus guilt (3–6 years)
The preschool child is exposed to new people and new activities; the child becomes involved and very busy.
The child learns about the environment through play.
The child learns new responsibilities and can act based on established principles.
The child develops a conscience.
If the child is constantly criticized for his or her actions, this can lead to guilt and a lack of purpose.
Play at this stage is known as associative play
Industry versus inferiority (6–12 years)
The child develops interests and takes pride in accomplishments.
The child enjoys working in groups and forming social relationships.
Projects are enjoyable.
The child follows rules and order.
Developing a sense of industry provides the child with purpose and confidence in being successful.
If a child is unable to be successful, this can result in a sense of inferiority.
A child must learn balance, an understanding that he or she cannot succeed at everything and that there is always more to learn.
Play during this stage is known as cooperative play
Identity versus role confusion (12–18 years)
Children of this age are preoccupied with how they are seen in the eyes of others.
They are working to establish their own identity.
They are trying out new roles to see what best fits for them.
If they are unable to provide a meaningful definition of self, they are at risk for role confusion in one or more roles throughout life.
Some confusion is good and will result in self-reflection and self-examination.
LGBTQ teens are more likely to experience:
Bullying Physical violence Rejection Suicidal thoughts High-risk behavior such as sexual and substance abuse
Lawrence Kohlberg
children acquire moral reasoning in a specific developmental sequence
established on the premise that at birth, we are void of morals or ethics; thus, moral development occurs through social interaction with the environment around us.
Nature
refers to the traits, capacities, and limitations that a person inherits from parents at conception.
Nurture
refers to the environmental influences that occur after conception, including the mother’s health before birth and the child’s environment thereafter.
behaviorist and social learning theories
describe the importance of the environment and nurturing of a child.
Classical conditioning
a learning process that occurs through associations between an environmental stimulus and a naturally occurring stimulus
Operant conditioning
a change in behavior based on rewards, reinforcement, and punishment
Growth Based on Experiences
children are born with a “blank slate,” and as they grow and develop they are changed based on their experiences.
Albert Bandura
children learn through observing others in their environment, as well as from rewards and punishments.
Intrauterine Factors
The mother’s health and nutritional status while pregnant affect the fetus.
Birth Events (Prematurity, Birth Trauma)
Premature infants can experience delayed growth and development, and are thus expected to reach developmental milestones at the same age they would have reached them if born at normal gestational age.
Age is adjusted for assessments: subtract the weeks/months that the infant was born prematurely from the current chronological age.
Chronic Illness and Hospitalization
A child’s physical state of well-being can affect developmental levels, because illness may interfere with normal progression by causing the child delays in acquiring the skills needed to progress to the next level.
Separation Anxiety
Ages 6 to 9 months often go through separation anxiety. They will often find more comfort in familiar people than strangers.
Play as a Stress Reducer
Play can be a diversional activity and a stress reducer, and provides the hospitalized child with an opportunity to act out fears and anxieties
Neglect/abuse affect on growth and development
experience problems in numerous areas of growth and development; examples of common problem areas are sleeping and feeding disorders. The child may also experience delays in learning to trust others and disorders of attachment.
types of neglect
medical
emotional
educational
abandonment
types of abuse
physical
emotional
sexual
Maslow’s hierarchy of needs
Level one: Physiological needs must be met first: food, rest, air, water.
Level two: The child has the need to be protected from harm and feel safe.
Level three: Feeling loved and part of a group.
Level four: Esteem needs to develop—the need to respect yourself and be respected by others.
Level five: Self-actualization, or becoming a complete person and reaching your greatest potential
Socioeconomic Factors
Lack of income can affect a child’s health and development
Cultural Background
Cultural background influences how children are socialized and how they experience the world around them. Beliefs, customs, and values are learned from cultural surroundings.
