Grammar Flashcards
Words to keep together w/ non-breaking space (6 things)
Month/day
First and Middle name/initial
7 p.m.
Page and Number
Street Number and Name
State and Zip
Hyphenation
Hyphenate compound adjectives
Compound Adjectives
Two or more terms before a noun that modify the noun
Ex. The above-referenced document vs. the document referenced above
Ex. The nine-inch skid mark vs. the skid mark was nine inches
Subject/verb agreement
Make sure verb tense matches the noun tense of a sentence
Verb must agree with its subject in person and number
Singular subject takes a singular verb
plural subject=plural verb
Indefinite Pronouns that require a singular verb
Each, every, much, either, neither, one, another, much, anybody, anything, everybody, everything, everyone, somebody, something, someone, nobody, nothing, no one,
Period (When to use)
At the end of sentence that makes a statement or expresses a command
i.e. I question the need to cut ad and promotion expenses at this time.
At the end of a polite request or command
i.e. Will you please call us at once if we can be of further help.
At the end of an indirect question/to mark its end
i.e. The only question she asked was when the report had to be on your desk
Period: When not to use (Designation/contractions/ordinals/Roman Numerals)
After letter used to designate persons or things
i.e. Client A, Class B
After contractions
i.e. cont’d
After ordinals expressed in figures
i.e. 1st, 2d, 3d, 4th
After Roman numerals
i.e. Volume II
Question Mark (When to use)
At the end of a direct question/as a way to mark the end thereof
After a rhetorical question
At the end of a sentence that is phrased like a statement but is spoken with the intonation of a question
Exclamation point (definition/when to use)
Emotional mark of punctuation most often found in sales/ad copy
Loses efficacy if used too often
Use at the end of a sentence to indicate urgency, surprise, disbelief, enthusiasm, or strong feeling
Can be used in place of a question mark to convey strong feeling
The comma (function)
2 primary functions:
- Sets off nonessential expressions that interrupt the flow of thought from subject to verb to object/complement
- Separates elements within a sentence to clarify their relationship to one another
2 commas are generally needed to set off, but only one is needed to separate
Single Comma: When to Use (8 things)
Use to separate two main clauses in a compound sentence when joined by and, but, or, nor
To separate 3 or more items in a series–unless all the items are joined by “and” or “or”
To separate two or more adjectives that modify the same noun
To separate a series of numbers into groups of thousands
After an introductory request/command
For introductory phrases that begin a sentence and come before the subject and verb of the main clause
To set off transitional expressions
For clarity, or to prevent misreading
Transitional Expressions
Expressions that help the reader mentally relate the preceding thought to the idea now being introduced
Should be set off from the rest of the sentence using a comma
Commas in dates
Use commas to set off the year when it follows the month and day
i.e. October 31, 2006
Omit commas when only the month and year are given
i.e. October 2006
Commas in Jr., Sr., etc.
Do not use commas to set off Jr., Sr., or Roman/Arabic numerals following a persons name unless you know that is their preference
Abbreviations like Esq. and thoise that stand for academic or religious orders are set off by two commas when they follow a person’s name
i.e. Address the letter to Helen E. Parkisian, Esq, in New York.
Comma w/ Inc., Ltd.
Do not use commas to set off Inc. or Ltd. and simimlar expressions in a company name unless you know a particular company prefers to do so
Commas in geographic reference/address
Use 2 commas to set off the name of a state, country, or the equivalent when it directly follows the name of a city/county
i.e. 4 years ago I was transferred from Bertlesville, Oklahoma, to Bern, Switzerland
Commas in a series (When/how to use)
When 3 or more items are listed in a series and the last item is preceded by and, or, nor, place a comma before the conjunction as well as between the other items
When not to use comma (not a list)
Do not use commas to separate compound subjects referring to the same verb or compound verbs referring to the same subject
When the subject does not follow the conjunction
Apposition (Definition/when and when not to set-off with comma)
Explains the noun or pronoun the precedes it
Use comma to set off apposition that is not essential, don’t use if apposition essential
Can go either way sometimes
ex. plaintiff, John Smith, herein alleges…
If John Smith is only plaintiff, name is not necessary when referring to plaintiff
If more than one plaintiff John Smith become essential to differentiate who is being referred to
Semicolon (When/Internal Commas/when not to use/non-related sentences)
When a coordinating conjunction (and, but, etc.) is omitted between two independent clauses, or when two independent clauses are linked by conjunctive adverbs, use a semicolon–not a comma–to separate the clauses
Use a semicolon if both clauses have internal commas and a misreading may occur if a comma also separated clauses
Do not use semicolon in sentences except to prevent misreading or to deliberately create a stronger break between clauses
If the clauses are not closely related, treat them as separate sentences
Colon (When to use/semicolon or colon)
Use between independent clauses when the second clause explains or illustrates the first clause and there is no coordinating conjunction or transitional expression linking the two clauses
If you aren’t sure whether to use semicolon or colon, you can treat each clause like an independent sentence and just use a period
The Dash
Dashes set off nonessential elements that requires special emphasis
Mostly used in place of comma, semicolon, colon, or parentheses
Creates a much more deliberate effect, use sparingly
Use dashes to show hesitation, faltering, or stammering
Dash length
One em
Two em
Three em
One En (half an m dash)
Parentheses (definition/when to use/when not to capitalize first word/when not to use period)
Parentheses set off only nonessential elements (whereas dashes set off essential and nonessential elements)
Use to enclose explanatory material that is independent of the main thought of the sentence
Use to set off references and directions
If item in parentheses falls within a sentence or is to be incorporated at the end of the sentence:
Do not capitalize first word in parenthetical
Do not use period at the end of parentheses
Quotation Marks Functions
- Indicate the use of someone else’s exact words
- Set off words and phrases for special emphasis
- Display titles of certain literary/artistic works
Quotation Mark Styles
- Curly
- Slanted
- Straight
Style is determined by the font you are using
Singular Possessives (singular possessive/silent s/singular noun ending with s sound)
To form the possessive of a singular noun not ending in “s” sound, add ‘s
Use “‘s” when a singular noun ends in a silent “s” (i.e. Arkansas’s)
When a singular noun ends in “s” sound, use judgement as to whether or not adding an ‘s will make the word difficult to pronounce, in which case add just ‘ only (i.e. Los Angeles’ freeways, Mr. Hodges’)
Add “‘s” to a singular noun ending in “s” sound if doing so would create a new syllable (i.e. witness’s, boss’s)
Plural Possessives
For a plural noun ending in s or es, add only apostrophe (i.e. witnesses’, attorneys’, secretaries’)
Be careful as some singular and plural possessives sound the same
i.e. secretary’s-secretaries-secretaries’ or witness’s-witnesses-witnesses’
Trouble Plural/Possessives
If having trouble determining how to use possessive:
- Determine if singular or plural
- Determine if it is acting as an adjective or the noun
- Is it a possessive
Modifying Possessives
Avoid modifying possessives (if there are multiple possessives in the same sentence, they may affect one another and say something different than you intended)
Use “of” test
Sets of Rules in use for Writing Numbers
There are two sets basic rules for writing numbers in wide use:
- Figure Style
- Word Style
figure Style (When is it used/1-10/when to use only figures/isolated cases/when to use words for numbers)
Most commonly used in ordinary business correspondence
Spell out numbers 1-10, use figures for numbers greater than 10, this rule applies equally to exact and approximate numbers
Use all/only figures when they have technical significance or need to stand out
In isolated cases spell out numbers even if they are greater than 10
Use words for numbers at the beginning of a sentence
Word Style
Often used in legal documents due to formality
Spell out numbers, whether exact or approximate, that can be expressed in one or two words (hyphenated words count as one word)
Don’t mix styles
When to use ordinal figures (1st, 2d, 3d, etc.) or words (first, second, third, etc.) in Dates
When date precedes the month or stands alone, express it in ordinal figures (14th) or words (fourteenth)
When emphasizing use ordinal figures
When being formal use ordinal words
When to use cardinal figures (1, 2, 3) in dates
When day follows month (March 14)
Don’t write March 14th, even though that’s how you would say it
Exact Amounts of Money (style)
Use figures to express exact or approximate amount of money ($7)
Isolated, nonemphatic reference to money (style)
May be spelled out (a few million dollars)
Decimal Points in Money (style)
It is not necessary to add a decimal point or zeros to a whole dollar amount that occurs in a sentence (…a check for $90)
Amounts under a dollar (style)
Ordinarily, use figures and the word “cents” (i.e. 50 cents)
Using dollar/cent sign to indicate range of prices (style)
Use money sign/symbol with both numbers (i.e. $5000 to $8000)
Money in legal documents (style)
In legal documents (pleading, contract, etc.) amounts of money are expressed first in words and then within parentheses as figures
Numbers at Beginning of Sentence (style)
Spell out a number that begins a sentence as well as any related numbers (forty to fifty percent of the people have signed the petition)
Indefinite Numbers and Amounts (style)
Spell out indefinite numbers and amounts (Several hundred investors in a multi-million dollar sale)
Ordinal Numbers (definition/when to spell-out)
Numbers indicating a thing’s position in a series
Spell out numbers if they be expressed in one/two words
(In the twenty-first century)
Cardinal number
Number denoting quantity (1, 2, 3)
Fractions (Style)
Generally, spell out stand alone fractions, only denote them as figures if the spelled-out version is long/awkward
Otherwise fractions should be in figure style when they are being used in technical measurements or some type of computation (one-half the audience; the profits multiply by 2/5)
Ages and Anniversaries (Style)
Express ages in figures (including 1-10) when they are used as significant statistics or as technical measurements (Susan plans to retire at age 65; the insurance policy is specially tailored for people in the 50-plus group)
Spell out when figures are non-technical or nonemphatic and when writing formally
Periods of Time (when to use figures/when to spell it out/in legal docs)
Use figures to express periods of time when they are used as technical measurements or significant statistics (as in discounts, interests, and credit terms)
Otherwise spell it out
Like amount of money, in legal documents periods of time are often expressed first in words and then in numbers
Clock Time (When to use figures/am and pm/o’clock/morning and evening/times on the hour)
Always use figures with a.m., p.m. noon., and midnight (Our plane leaves at 8 p.m.)
Do not use a.m. or p.m. unless figures are used
Use figures with o’clock except in formal correspondence
Do not use a.m./p.m. with o’clock, or w/ in the morning/evening
Do not use “:00” for times on the hour
Percentages (style)
Express percentages in figures and spell out the word percent (Current interest rate is 5 percent)
% can be used in tables, business forms, or technical material
Ratios and Proportions (style)
As a rule, write ratios and proportions in figure
Roman numerals (reason for use)
Roman numerals are used chiefly for the imporant divisions of literary and legislative material
Capitalization in Legal Documents (Items that would not normally be capitalized/allcaps/key terms)
It has been traditional in the past to capitalize terms in legal documents that would not otherwise be capitalized, however this practice is/was not guided by a uniform style
While the practice is becoming less common, some key terms will be written in ALLCAPS (EX. DENIED, ORDERED)
Capitalize key terms like: References to the parties involved (i.e. the Buyer, the Plaintiff, the Seller); References to the nature of the document(i.e. the Agreement, the Affidavit, the Motion); Spelled-out amounts of money
Capitalization in First Words (7 things)
capitalize the first words of:
every sentence
an expression used as a sentence
a quoted sentence
an independent question within a sentence
each item displayed in a list or an outline
each line in a poem
salutation and complimentary closing of a letter
Capitalization in Proper nouns (When to Capitalize/prepositions in proper nouns/articles in proper nouns/conjunctions in proper nouns)
Capitalize every proper noun, that is, the official name of a particular person, place, or thing
Prepositions in proper nouns are not capitalized unless they have four or more letter
Articles “a” and “an” are not capitalized in proper nouns
The article “the” is only capitalized under special circumstances
Conjunctions are not capitalized in proper nouns
Capitalization in Common nouns
Capitalize when part of a name, but do not capitalize when used in place of a formal name/proper noun
Capitalization of Personal names
Treat a person’s name exactly as the person does, respect individual preferences
Capitalization of name of organizations
Capitalize names of companies, unions, associations, societies etc.
Capitalization of Governmental Bodies
Capitalize the names of countries and international orgs as well as national state, county, and city bodies and their subdivisions
Capitalization of Names of Places (What to Capitalize/What not to Capitalize/city and state/directional words)
Capitalize the Names of places such as streets, buildings, parks, monuments, rivers etc.
Do not capitalize short forms used in place of the full name
Capitalize the word city only when it is part of the corporate name of the city or a nickname
Capitalize the word state only when it follows the name of the state or when it is a part of an imaginative name (i.e. Empire State Building)
Capitalize directional words only when they designate definite regions
Capitalization in Days of week, months, holidays, seasons, events, periods
Capitalize the names of days/months/holidays/religious days
Do not capitalize the names of seasons unless they are personified
Capitalize the names of historical events and imaginative names given to historical periods
Do not capitalize the names of decades and centuries
Capitalization of bills, laws, acts, treaties
Capitalize formal titles of act/laws/bills/treaties, but do not capitalize common-noun elements that stand alone in place of the full name
Capitalization of Races, Peoples, Languages
Capitalize the names of races, people, tribes, and languages
Quotation Marks: When/How to Use (direct Quotation/series of words/techbnical terms and jargon/quotation within quotation/period and commas/semicolons and colons/periods and question marks/parentheses/capitalization)
Use to enclose a direct quotation
Use when quoting a series of words/phrases in the exact sequence in which they originally appeared
If words do not appear in sequence, hoever, put quotation marks around each word
When using technical terms, business jargon, or coined words/phrases not likely to be familiar with your reader, enclose them in quotation marks when first used.
A quotation within a quotation should be enclosed in a pair of single quotation marks that match the style of the regular quotation marks you are using.
Periods and commas always go insida the closing quotation mark
Semicolons and colons always go outside the closing quotation mark and outside the single closing quotation mark.
At the end of a sentence, a question mark or an exclamation point goes inside the closing quotation mark when it applies only to the quoted material or to the quoted material and the entire sentence; outside the closing quotation mark when it applies to the entire sentence.
The closing parenthesis goes inside the closing quotation mark when the parenthetical element is part of the quotation; outside the closing quotation mark when the quotation is part of the parenthetical element.
Ordinarily, capitalize the first word of every complete sentence in quotation marks
Independent Clause
Has a subject and verb and expresses a complete thought, if two are joined by a conjunction, use comma
Conjunctive Adverb (examples)
however, also, nevertheless, consequently, hence, otherwise, furthermore, therefore, accordingly
Numbers in the Actual Practice of Good Grammar
In actual practice, the exclusive use of figures is considered appropriate only in table and statistical matters, whereas the exclusive use of words to express numbers is found only in ultra formal documents (such as proclamation and social invitations)
Amounts of money over a million dollar (style)
Round amounts of a million or more may be expressed partly in words (i.e. $10 million)
Related Number (style)
Use the same style for related numbers even if they normally would be written in different ways
(i.e. She has two children, ages 8 and 21)
If one number is above ten, put both write both numbers as figures
Compound numbers (style)
Hyphenate all compound numbers between 21-99 when in word style
Commas in Dates
Use commas to set off year when it follows month and day, do not do this if only the month and year are given
Capitalization of noun/number sequence
Capitalize a noun followed by a number/letter that indicates sequence, except number following “page,” “paragraph,” and “line”
(i.e. Interrogatory 1, Boat 2, page 12, paragraph 3)
