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Image of monomer
phosphate head, ribose/deoxyribose sugar, nitrogen base
tRNA vs DNA
tRNA - Uracil, ribose, more 02
DNA - thymine, deoxyribose, less 02
Why template strand copied
Has promoter region
Respiration
Glucose + oxygen –> carbon dioxide water
Glycolysis (cytosol)
Input = Glucose, NAD+, ADP + Pi
Output = Pyruvate, NADH, ATP
2 ATP
Crebs (Matrix of mitochondria)
Input = 2 acetyl CoA VIA 2 Pyruvate, NAD+, FAD, ADP + Pi
output = Co2, NADH, FADH, ATP
2 ATP
ETC (Cristae)
Input = O2, NADH, FADH2, ADP + Pi
Output = H2O, NAD+, FAD, ATP
32-34 ATP
Photosynthesis
Carbon dioxide + water –> glucose + oxygen + water
Light dependent (grana in the thylakoid membranes)
Input = NADP+, ADP + Pi, H2O
Output = NADPH, ATP, O2
Light independent (stroma)
Input = NADPH, ATP, CO2
Output = NADP+, ADP + Pi, Glucose
Antibiotic resistance
Bacteria species use a plasmid that has the antibiotic resistant gene and this will confirm if the vector cell has the recombinant plasmid (if survive the bacteria)
Out of Africa
- First wave out of Africa was Homo Erectus (some stayed)
- The ones that stayed evolved into Homo heidelbergensis → In Asia and Europe, Homo heidelbergensis gave rise to Homo neanderthals and Homo denisovans
- Homo heidelbergensis that stayed in Africa evolved into Homo sapiens about 300 000 years ago
- Homo Sapiens left Africa and everything else became extinct
Positive control
Basis of comparison but have a known predicted change
Negative control
Blank setup, nothing should happen, acts as point of comparison
Vector
Way of delivering gene of interest into bacteria cell
Older dating use vs younger dating
Potassium to argon (older)
Carbon 14 to nitrogen (young)
PAM
A specific sequences of nucleotides that binds to the gene of interest guides Cas9 to identify the gene location
Cas9
cleaves DNA at specific base sequences.
gRNA
RNA sequence complementary to gene of interest that provides the platform for the Cas9 protein to bind to synthesis DNA
CRISPR natures way
- Bacteriophage virus lands on a cell and injects its DNA
- Viral genome gets incorporated into CRISPR region
- When viral DNA is transcribed to mRNA, it becomes guide RNA and forms a complex with Cas 9 enzyme which float around in the cell with the RNA
- When the same virus reinjects its DNA into the cell, Cas 9 have complementary RNA and will cut up viral DNA
CRISPR application
- Scientists manufacture cas9 protein, guide RNA and PAM- specific to the target DNA
- The cas9 will identify the PAM sequence and guide RNA directs it to cut both strands of DNA
- Scientists can insert a new piece of DNA (donor DNA) at the site of the cut. They may also remove or replace sections of DNA or add and delete nucleotides
- The cell detects and repairs the broken strand of DNA. When the DNA is repaired any changes made are integrated into the genomic DNA.
Homologous structures
Structures that have been derived from a common ancestor and thus show similarities in structure, but have different functions.
Example: The bones of a bat’s wing are homologous to those of a whale’s flipper, even though one structure is specialised for flying and the other for swimming.
Vestigial structures
Structures that are non-functional remnants of structures that were functional in ancestral species.
Example: Whales are mammals evolved from a terrestrial mammalian ancestor, but are now specialised for life in the seas. Their skeletons show the presence of a reduced pelvis and, in some cases, vestiges of the bones of the hind limbs.
Analogous structure
a feature found in two unrelated species, having evolved independently in each due to similar selection pressures
Secondary protein structures
Alpha helix: single twisted strand. Help increase SA:V, can stretch / relax and contract - muscle fibres.
Beta-pleated sheets: staggered fold. Can stretch, give flexibility to the protein, maintains a structure / appearance surrounding
Random coiling: often the active site of an enzyme allowing a substrate to successfully bind
C3, C4, CAM
C3 - Cool temp, moist conditions, Rubisco, Location of LID in, mesophyll cells, Open stomata, Carbon fixation during day
C4 - Hot arid environment, exposed to drought, PEP carboxylase (Rubisco starts LID), Location of LID in bundle sheath cells
don’t open stomata, Carbon fixation during day
CAM - warm temp, tropic regions, PEP carboxylase (Rubisco starts LID), Location of LID in mesophyll cell, open stomata at night only, Carbon fixation at night
Sympatric speciation
- A single population is divided by prezygotic isolation barriers. Initially there is some gene flow between populations
- Over many generations, genetic divergence occurs. The two palm trees produce flowers at different times of the year; therefore, there is no reproduction occurring between the two species. Eventually the isolated populations respond differently to environmental selection pressures, which leads to different phenotypes being selected for by natural selection or genetic drift.
- When they can no longer reproduce fertile offspring when brought together they become two different species.
mutations in chromosome
Deletions - When a chromosome breaks in two places, losing the middle section, and the remaining sections rejoin.
Inversion - When a chromosome breaks in two places, and middle piece turns around and joins up again - normal
Translocation - When a piece of a chromosome breaks off and joins up with another chromosome
Duplication - When a section of chromosome replicates (set of genes repeated, can be thousands repeats)
Phospholipid bilayer
Hydrophobic
Head - hydrophilic
Tail - hydrophobic
Respiration
Glucose + oxygen –> carbon dioxide water
Photosynthesis
Carbon dioxide + water –> glucose + oxygen + water
what does CRISPR do bacteria
recognise foreign viral DNA sequence strand in spacer region upstream of PAM
Repressor gene
Produces proteins that controls other genes
Absolute dating
Absolute dating involves identifying the age of rock or fossils using radiometric dating techniques.
Cas9 bacteria
Binds to PAM and upstream of PAM and unravels DNA
gRNA checks for complementarity and then Cas9 cleaves creating blunt ends
PCR
- Denaturing - double stranded piece of DNA is heated to approx 94°C, causing the hydrogen bonds between the complementary strands to break.
- Annealing- temp is lowered to approximately 55 °C for two minutes. Primers are added and anneal to the complementary regions of the DNA strand. Primers bind to the target DNA sequences at 3′ ends and initiate DNA synthesis (polymerisation).
- Extension - temp is raised to approx 72°C and taq polymerase synthesises a new strand of DNA (using the primers as a starting point) by adding free nucleotides.
This process is repeated, doubling the DNA each time.
