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Alevel - Geography Hammy > 🟣Global Systems And Globalisation > Flashcards

🟣Global Systems And Globalisation Flashcards

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1
Q

Define globalisation

A

Growing economic interdependence of countries worldwide, increasing volume and variety of cross border transactions in goods and services, freer international capital flow and more rapid and widespread diffusion of technology.

Leads to bordereless world

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2
Q

Economic globalisation

A
  1. TNC’s trade products internationally and use international outsourcing
  2. Industries moved to developing countries and decreased labour cost, economic growth stimulated in host country
  3. Trade blocs - economic intergration between states and promotes development
  4. Sources of income from international companies
  5. Global transactions of money, eg. Buying something shipped form china
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3
Q

Political globalisation

A
  1. Governments form connections to trade, such as world trade deals and trade blocs
  2. Western democracies had global influence on political ideas, eg. Developments of market economics, in communist states
  3. Deregulation policies allow markets to grow with an international reach
  4. International organisations exist to harmonise national economies + political relationships
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4
Q

Cultural globalisation

A
  1. Exposure to media sources (TV/Social media) allows recognition and understanding of other cultures
  2. The ability to move and travel internationally and experience different cultures
  3. Individuals have greater understanding / awareness of world events due to education from global news
  4. Westernisation - domination of western cultural traits in non-western areas, Eg. Starbucks in Asia
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5
Q

Social globalisation

A
  1. International immigration creates multicultural societies where people share / adopt cultures (cultural food shops
  2. Social networking has revolutionised human connections as tech platforms enable interactions with people living in different areas access to international information
  3. Global NGO’s / charities are involved in global improvement of education and health (eg. WHO and Amnestry National)
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6
Q

Factors in globalisation - new financial technologies

A
  1. Money borrowed / invested internationally - more connected by world bank
  2. Communication technology means banks worldwide can communicate and have global branches with customers worldwide - allows for offshore investment
  3. Internet - transfer of money / investment / remittances / buying and selling products
  4. Cryptocurrency - online currency and trading
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7
Q

Factors in globalisation - transport technologies

A
  1. Faster / easier transport of goods / people - planes / high speed rail / boats
  2. Cargo aircraft - large fast product distribution
  3. International mitigations - relations / national workforce
  4. Containerisation - large standard sized container ships make transport of products cheaper and less trips are needed for same amount of product.
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8
Q

Factors in globalisation - security systems and technology

A
  1. Stricter regulations on entering a country and goods transportation - international customs X-rays - no drug, weapon or human threat transportation
  2. Cybersecurity - technologies developing to be able to track cyberattacks
  3. Global systems to limit disagreements / wars - UN Security Council - diffuse disagreements
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9
Q

Factors in globalisation - communication technologies

A
  1. Satellites / fibre optic - transfer of money and information internationally
  2. Services accessed through internet (call centres) allow millions of jobs to be created
  3. Relations maintained over large distance - increased labour flows
  4. Cooperations communication with oversea factories
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10
Q

Factors in globalisation - trade agreements

A

Allows international trade to be cheaper / easier

Trading products - expensive due to import and export tariffs, quotas, import licenses.

Trade agreements lowers= trade costs by removing or lessening certain restrictions - this is overlooked by WTO to deem if they’re fair or not.

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11
Q

Tariff

A

Tax for importing or exporting goods

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12
Q

Quotas

A

Limits on number of goods imported

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13
Q

Import licences

A

Document issues by national government authorising for certain goods from a certain source and the importance.

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14
Q

Factors in globalisation - managment and information systems

A
  1. Increase profits by increasing products so average manufacturing prices decreases - upscaling / bulk shipping
  2. Outsourcing - Irving other companies to complete company tasks (eg. Call centres) so decreased labour costs
  3. Offshoring - relocation abroad due to decreased tax, labour and material costs
  4. Management of product flows to consumers - ability to communicate information / transport products means companies can have different production stages in different countries
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15
Q

Flows of capital - diagram

A

Periphery region —> migration (workforce) —> TNCs make money abroad —> Core region

Core region —> world bank —> disaster relief and development loans —> periphery regions

Core regions —> IMF —> stabilise loans —> periphery regions

Core regions —> FDI —> bilateral aid —> remittance payments —> periphery regions

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16
Q

Flows of capital - FDI

A

Foreign direct investment

TNCs invest directly into physical capital / assets of foreign enterprises (eg. Setting up a factory)

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17
Q

Flows of capital - reparation of profits

A

TNCs invest in oversea production, normally take any of the profit made form investment back to home counrty (economic leakage)

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18
Q

Flows of capital - Aid

A

Can be provided through UN (multinationally) from contributions from richer countries (can be known as ODA - official development assistance)

Can be provided bilaterally from 1 government to another - co-operations applied

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19
Q

Flows of capital - migration

A

Majority of migration of labour is lower income to higher income country.

This exacerbates disparities in poorer regions as they lose their most skilled workers who pay taxes and spend their profit.

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20
Q

Flows of capital - remittances

A

Transfers in money by foreign workers to family in home countries.

Eg. India was sent 79 billion US Dollars in 2018 - more steady than FDI and goes directly to families.

Somalia 2012 - 50% GNI and 80% infrastructure development was from remittance payments.

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21
Q

Flows of labour

A

People who move to work in another country and add to migrant workforce.

Within Asia (South to West) - 63 million
Latin America / Caribbean to North America - 26 million
India and China to Europe - 20 million

Highly skilled workers move from LIC’s to HIC’s due to higher wages for the same job and qualifications.

Under qualified workers move to HICs due to high unemployment in home countries - could lead to overpopulation and exploitation of these peoples in HIC causing them to do illegal work in HICS

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22
Q

Flows of products

A

Flows of physical goods form produced in 1 country to another.

  1. Products traded internationally due to technological advances (transport and communications)
  2. Production had relocates internationally (offshoring) to LICs due to reduced labour costs - eg. H&M Bangladesh
  3. HICs import products from LICs and sell them for high profit - emergent countries increased flows of consumer products as theres more wealthy people
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23
Q

Flows of services

A

Services are ‘footloose’ industries - can relocate anywhere due to no (raw) product restraints.

Call Centres in India
- English is the professional language in India
- Bangalore / Mumbai - highly educated
- Cheaper labour costs

TNC’s / Companies can locate within its own country or in a developing country.

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24
Q

Flows of information

A

Flows of information from place to place via internet / SMS / phone calls / international news.

  • Fast broadband connection - financial information can be transferred instantly
  • Quaternary economy structure - pharmaceuticals / computer technology / accounting / international law. All information development rather than products
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25
Q

Global marketing

A

Process of adapting a company’s products, services and marketing campaigns to appeal to customers in different countries. Eg. McDonald in India - Veggie Chicken Tikka Burger.

Global expansion - millions more customers so increased products

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26
Q

Glocalisation

A

Tailoring marketing campaigns to certain countries to appeal to the customers in that area more.

  • Culturally aware
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27
Q

Standardisation

A

Use of same marketing campaign strategies worldwide.
- Coca Cola - same slogan worldwide

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28
Q

Define Interdependence

A

Relations of mutual reliance between different areas, governments, companies.

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29
Q

Issues associated with interdependence

A

Can cause dependance issues and unequal flows:
- Global flows of people /labour / money / ideas / technology are not equal around the world - some countries give more and some counrties receive more.

Unequal flows can be beneficial (social / economic) but can also lead to war, conflict, injustice and famine.

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30
Q

Political interdependence

A

Countries rely on other countries to intervene if political unrest occurs.
Eg. Many nations intervened when Serbian Satan sponsored ethnic cleaning of Kosovo Albanians - leading to Kosovos Independence.

Political international issues require countries working together to solve them.

Issues raised must have unanimous decisions from all nations.

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31
Q

Environmental interdependence

A

All nations affected by other nations GHGs and nuclear gas emissions so all countries rely on each-other to protect the environment.
- Global Warming - all countries effected and all countries need to make change.

Nuclear fallout from Chernobyl Disaster in Ukraine reached the UK.

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32
Q

Economic Interdependence

A

Countries are dependant on the flows of labour / products / services entering the country in order for the economy to grow.

Labour provides a workforce, products and services meaning countries can develop and make more money.

Some counrties economy is dependant on external businesses.
Eg. India TNC Call centres

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33
Q

Social interdependence

A

Migration has caused social interdependence as theres diasporas (groups of migrants of same origin living in a different country all over the world that are dependant on the place they live in.

Countries rely on eachother for leisure activities:
- Olympics
- TV, Shaun the sheep shown in 50 different countries, produced in the UK.

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34
Q

Production patterns

A

Over the past 40 years - 95% of manufacturing comes from Japan, North America, Western Europe (now been a shift to LICs / developing countries) - global shift.

HICs - automotive production / steel / iron
NEE - oil ( Russia/ Saudi Arabia / UAE / Qatar - fuel and mining)

China / NEE LICs - textiles and clothing

China - 1/3 technology production + shipped globally

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35
Q

Consumption patterns

A

Manufactured products consumed by HICs more than LICs due to higher demand. Developing counrties require more fuel and mineral due to rapid industrialisation.

LICs - lower imports (Chad / DR of Congo / Uzbekistan - mostly medical imports)

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36
Q

Containerisation

A

Products transported in bulk internationally - same type of container used world wide (same sizing)
Manufactures load boxed then the internal contents not touched again until arrived to desired location.

  • has helped create gloval economy
  • shipping is inexpensive
  • overall allows items to be shipped rapidly and cheaply
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37
Q

Suez Canal

A

Artificial sea level waterway in Egypt that connects Mediterranean Sea to Red Sea. Facilitates trade between Asia and Europe.

Used by container / tank / bulk carrier ships.

2019 - container ship (400m long) blocked the call due to windy conditions causing over 100+ ships to be delayed.

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38
Q

Unequal powers - trade

A

HICs control trade agreements - those who enter trade agreements are those who benefit from them.

HICs have more wealth therefore influence trade agreements with a LIC more, pressuring them to make a deal more useful for the HIC.

LICs - decrease taxes, reduce tariffs, set up SEZ to encourage investment - however in Bangalore this causes major inequality between SEZ and non-EZ zones.

TNCs influence trade - create sanctions on other countries ‘ refuse trade with them - Caribbean Banana Wars.

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39
Q

Sanctions

A

Restrictions on exports implemented for political reasons by countries / international organisations to maintain international peace and security.

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40
Q

Embargoes

A

Partial / complete prohibition of commerce / trade with a country due to political reasons

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41
Q

Regulatory restrictions

A

Restrictions on import based obsiticles such as quality of goods / how theyre produced

Eg. EU places restrictions on products that use child labour.

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42
Q

Volume / pattern of trade factors (5)

A
  1. Comparative advantage
  2. Proximity
  3. Agglomeration
  4. Market size
  5. Geopolitical relations
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43
Q

Comparative advantage

A
  1. Comparative advantage - countries specialise in producing / exporting goods that they can produce more efficiently at lower costs.
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44
Q

Proximity

A
  1. Proximity - countries more likely to trade with neighbouring countries - less cost and time / less cultural difference / historic and linguistic reasons
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45
Q

Agglomeration

A
  1. Agglomeration- some industries tend to cluster in geographical areas as sharing of regional skills and specialist information saves costs and money
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46
Q

Market size

A
  1. Market size / strength - exporters are drawn to larger more affluent and growing markets where theres potential to increase volume
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47
Q

Geopolitical relations

A
  1. Geog political relations - political alliances determine how different countries co-operate and trade with each-other. Also conflict could cause sanctions / embargo’s
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48
Q

WTO - what do they do

A
  • tries to gradually lower trade barriers and aims for free trade
  • negotiates with any country involved in a trade dispute with the aim of marketing free trade as efficient as possible
  • provides stability and gives members confidence in international trade systems
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49
Q

Protectionism

A

Shielding a fledgling / emerging countries domestic industries by taxing imports.

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50
Q

Protectionism - example of growth of international trade being stalled

A

2018 value of world trade goods was 0.5 trillion US Dollars greater than it was in 2013

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51
Q

Protectionism - example of global trade has changed due to greater integration of economies

A

Increased complexity of global supply chains for many manufactured products, eg. Car parts are produced in different parts of the world

52
Q

Trade pro’s

A
  • Increase product variety for population
  • Companies expl and their market
  • International cooperation
  • Decrease production costs
  • Companies buy from countries with a weak currency - cheaper
  • Trade partners support each-other
  • Increased global welfare
53
Q

Trade con’s

A
  • Increased dependency on other countries
  • Countries forced into trade deals and conflict
  • Economic injustice - smaller counrties at a disadvantage as more likely to be left out of world trade
  • Cultural differences
  • Exchange rates vary
  • Political instability
  • Local unemployment
  • Pollution
  • Resource depletion
  • Big companies avoid taxes - inequality
54
Q

AcFTA

A

African Continental Free Trade Area

Worlds largest free market - 54/55 African nations - 1.3 billion people
- plans to increase regional trade (historically low - 16%)
- critical for growth and job creation
- gives African nation voice and leverage

Advocates payment of higher prices to producers, as well as helping them achieve improvement in social ad economic standards - fair trade

55
Q

Define customs union

A

Groups of countries that apply 1 common system of procedures / rules / tariffs for all or almost all imports imports / exports / transiting goods.

Usually countries participating in customs unions share common trade / competition policies.

56
Q

Define TNC’s

A

companies operating ​across multiple countries. These companies usually work by having their headquarters, production, and sales all in different countries across the globe​, meaning they are a crucial aspect of globalisation.

They can provide raw products, manufactured goods, services or information.

TNCs make ​products​, produce ​jobs​, ​invest ​in countries, and sometimes contribute to ​cultures​. Some TNCs are very powerful, and can even have ​political influence​, e.g. the pressuring of some
countries to reduce taxes and create SEZs so that the TNC will invest there.

57
Q

TNC’s - spatial organisation

A

Headquarters
- usually located in HIC and responsible for making big decisions such as investment / meetings with global organisations.
- Majority in NAmerica, West Europe, China and Japan

Research and development
- facilities in which customer research / software development / plans for manufacturing are carried out.
- Usually in the country the TNC operates in so research can be varied and specific to target market.

Manufacturing
- concentrated in LICs due to increased profits from lower material and labour costs and lower tariffs and taxes.

58
Q

TNC’s - production

A

Use global management systems in order to maximise profits.

Economies of scale
- TNC’s have large revenue, meaning they can afford to upscale their production. Allowing for profits to increase as less money spent in production.

Global supply chains
- increase profits as HQ and R&D are in HICs, but production occurs globally especially with TNC;s in the secondary industry sector.
- Eg. Boeing - an American Aircraft has parts manufactured in Japan, Sweden France, Australia, Italy, Korea etc.
- allows products to be made for cheaper and better due to specialisation

59
Q

TNC - outsourcing

A

TNCs that provide ​tertiary industry products (services) will often ​outsource tasks to other companies in order to save money and time.

TNCs like Apple outsource their manufacturing process so that profits can be maximised.

60
Q

TNC’s - offshoring

A

Companies that make ​manufactured products ​will often have their factories in LICs due to lower labour costs, better taxes, weaker regulations for workers and weaker environmental regulations.

This leads to much dispute about the ​ethical issues ​with TNCs exploiting poorer citizens in order to maximise their products.

61
Q

TNC’s - linkages

A

TNC’s create links between other countries and companies and help the company to expand.

Links through:
- FDI
- Mergers
- Acquisitions
- Integration (horizontal and vertical)

62
Q

TNC’s - links through FDI

A

TNCs create links with other countries by ​investing in them​, which benefits the country as this creates jobs and contributes to the economy. TNCs can be investments into a factory.

Mergers
- TNCs join to form one larger company​, helping to form foreign links if the TNC is from a foreign country.

Acquisitions
- A TNC ​buys another company ​in order to expand (usually a smaller company). Acquisitions are frequently associated with local job loss as a large TNC will take ​full control​.

63
Q

TNC’s - links through intergration

A

TNC’s expand their company by creating linkages between other companies.

Vertical
- taking ownership of part of the chain
- eg. Buying a plantation

Horizontal
- taking ownership of another company, often one that’s similar in industry.
- eg. Food industry Nestle managing Wonka, Nerds, Laffy Taffy, L’Oréal, Garnier

64
Q

TNC’s - trading and marketing patterns

A

Majority of TNC’s trade with HICs for consumer goods is concentrated in richer countries, however now rapid demain in NEE’s - LAmerica, EAsia - so TNC trading expanded.

Lowest income counrties still see a lack of trade with TNC’s due to lower disposable income.

TNC’s - large global revenue so make use of global marketing and use standardisation trademarks as well as glocalisation in products.

65
Q

World trade case study

A

Banana Wars

66
Q

Main producers of bananas

A

LAmerica, Caribbean, India, China, Indonesia, Brazil

67
Q

World trade pattern in bananans

A

ACP group (Africa, Caribbean and Pacific) - small / medium sized producers - Family farms, cooperatives

Latin America (Ecuador and Columbia) - controlled by large US TNCs - Most grown on large monoculture plantations

Philippines and Africa - combination of small, medium growers and increasing TNC involvement

Trade follows traditional patterns - developing regions exporting low-value primary goods

Exports dominated by: Latin America and Caribbean - 2018 - produced 17 million tonnes of bananas

Biggest importers: EU and USA

68
Q

How does global trade in bananas show injustice in free trade agreements

A

Large TNC’s - Del Monte / Chiquita dominates the industry

Shift in power has given retailers an increasingly dominant role in the supply chain as market share becomes concentrated in the hands of a few retailers, suppliers have little option other than to accept conditions such as low prices, discounts and delayed payments.

85% of price paid stays in the richer country rather than the country of production - economic leakage, workers only receive 5/9% total banana value cost.

69
Q

Lome convention

A

Despite an agreement being in place to support the small-scale producers, the TNCs were able to overturn the agreement and were supported by the WTO.

70
Q

Fair trade bananas advantage

A
  • Removed exploitation - the ‘race to the bottom’ ended
  • Social and environmental standards are kept
  • Social premium - supports community development , quality of life
  • Counters the deterioration of conditions in banana production
  • Compensates farmers for their loss - currently receive 5-9% of total value of bananas
  • Fair trade produce promotes sustainability
  • Small-scale producers benefit, large-scale producers are not dominant

85% of bananas from the Caribbean region are fairtrade

71
Q

Free trade bananas advantage

A
  • Would prevent trade wars eg 1992-2009 trade war, ended by the 2009 Geneva Banana Agreement
  • This began with the Lome Convention in 1975 (made with 71 ACP countries, many of which were banana producers
  • The 71 countries were given SDT - tariff-free import quotas for EU markets
  • Less expensive for consumers - fairtrade is expensive
  • In theory - countries specialise in products for which they have a comparative advantage - supports free flow of trade and efficiency
72
Q

Is free trade sustainable

A

Could potentially be economically sustainable

Definitely not environmentally or socially sustainable

  • depends on what one deems as sustainable
73
Q

The environmental and social cost of free trade

A

The workers growing the bananas
- EG Ivory Coast, Cameroon - low pay, heat, poor conditions

  • The environment - degradation as a result of capital intensive farming / monoculture practice from producing large quantities at the cheapest possible price
74
Q

Financial technologies

A

Communication technology has allowed banks to communicate across the world, allowing for banks to have global ​branches ​with customers all over the world. This technology also allows companies to invest offshore​, and still manage/collect their profits from overseas.

The internet ​is also a type of financial technology, as it allows people to ​transfer money​, be that for buying/selling products, remittances, or investments.

Cryptocurrency (encrypted digital currency) has been developed, which has created a whole new market for online currency and trading

75
Q

Economies of scale

A

The concept of ​increasing profits ​by producing ​a larger amount of products​, as overall the average price to manufacture each product is ​lowered​. Companies save money by ​upscaling ​their production, e.g. buying and shipping in bulk to save money.

76
Q

Global supply chains

A

The organised management of ​product flows​, from when they are manufactured to when they are delivered to consumers. Due to the ability to ​communicate information and transport products, companies can now have different ​stages of production in different ​countries​, which saves money.

77
Q

Outsourcing

A

Hiring other companies to complete company tasks that are essential, but are not necessary to complete by the company itself (e.g. call centres, final manufactures, advertising etc.).

Outsourcing saves money if done in ​low income countries ​due to lower labour costs.

78
Q

Offshoring

A

Relocating a company process abroad, usually saving money due to lower taxes, lower prices of materials, and lower labour costs.

79
Q

Trade agreements - why can trading be expensive?

A

Controls + restrictions

Tariffs​ (a tax for importing and exporting goods);

Non-tariff barriers​ (NTBs), such as​ quotas​ (a limit/fixed number of goods) or requirements;

Outright​ bans ​on products or country import/exports.

80
Q

All trade agreements are overlooked by…

A

WTO to ensure they are fair.

81
Q

Issues associated with interdependence

A

Due to unequal flows.

Unequal flows can be beneficial to a country ​as they can bring benefits socially and economically. However, unequal flows can also cause ​inequalities​, and in some cases can lead to ​injustice or conflict.

82
Q

How do unequal flows of people occur

A

Migration ​occurs ​from low income countries to high income countries​. This is due to there being more ​opportunity ​in high income countries (better employment, more freedom etc.). Therefore, the ​flow of people​ ​globally is unequal.

83
Q

Unequal flows of people (flowing to)

A

Migrants become intertwined in work forces and do unwanted jobs.

States that are home to large diaspora population often have strong ties with diasporas country origin.

Host country may become dependant on the migrant workers, which may cause issues if there is a change in circumstance.

Unequal flows can cause overpopulation + pressure on services.

84
Q

Unequal flows of people (flowing from)

A

Workers send remittances back to their home country, helping their economy to grow.

Those fleeing from conflicts or poor quality of life in countries they move into.

The country that migrants originate from may become dependant on remittances so a change in circumstances may be detrimental to the economy.

Underpopulation + Brain Drain.

Exploitation of migrants.

85
Q

How do unequal flows of money occur?

A

The majority of money flows are ​into ​low income countries. Foreign Direct Investment, aid, remittances all flow ​into ​low income countries, whereas the flows of money ​into high income countries ​are majorly repatriation of profits/product sales. These flows of money bring both benefits and issues.

86
Q

Unequal flows of money (benefits)

A

Receiving money (FDI) can improve quality of life as it provides an income thats higher than other employment in LICs.

Aid and remittances can also help to improve quality of life.

Sending money can take advantage of lower labour costs maximising their profits.

87
Q

Unequal flows of money (problems)

A

Workers in LIC’s are often dependant on higher wages meaning they must subject they must subject themselves to dangerous working conditions and low wages set by large companies.

Foreign Aid can cause issues, as it can reduce incentive for governments to help their own countries.

TNCs may profit too much the amount of profit that that stays in the country is very small.

88
Q

Unequal flows of ideas (what is it?)

A

High income countries usually dictate ​ideas ​of how countries should be run, and how trade should be carried out. This is mostly down to these countries having ​more money​, thus more power over less developed countries.

89
Q

Unequal flows of ideas benefits

A

HICs have introduced ideas of deregulation to NEEs.

Free trade created by HICs using deregulation has increased globally allowing global markets to thrive.

Countries with successful strategies can educate lower income countries on how to create economic growth.

90
Q

Unequal flows of ideas problems

A

Deregulation happening too quickly for LICs to keep up - not allowing the​ full benefits​ of the growth of the private sector to be achieved. Rapid flows of FDI and growth of the global markets mean some countries cannot keep up, and a ​reform​ ​of regulations would work better than only ​deregulation​.

Privatisation.

LICs can feel forced to agree on ideas with HICs to not put themselves at an economic disadvantage.

Deregulation may relax environmental laws.

Ideas of ​multiculturalism​ ​and interdependency​ ​may be disputed by some people. Some citizens few an interdependent country as a ​threat ​to their nation’s sovereignty.

91
Q

Unequal flows of technology benefits

A

Economies of LICs can develop through technology investments, opening up factories and increasing employment.

The concentration of technology innovation in HICs has lead to the develop t of beneficial technological advancements. This leads to consumers getting better products.

Companies benefit from products being produces overseas, meaning they can maximise products.

92
Q

Unequal flows of technology problems

A

People in LICs cant afford to purchase technology that will advance their economy and improve quality of life, meaning HICs can rapidly develop with a technological advantage.

Companies take a large amount of profits whereas employees are left with little income and often poor working conditions.

Companies investing technology into LICs means that HIC manufacturing jobs are often lost. This can leave many without jobs.

93
Q

Unequal power relations caused by Interdependence.

A

HICs = the more powerful countries and have more money and technology as well as deeper relations with other countries meaning they’re able to influence global systems to their advantage.

LICs = respond to events rather than directly intervene.

94
Q

Trade and investments in a globalised world - volume

A

rnational trade is occurring ​more than ever before​. Globally, the amount of exports has been steadily increasing.

The only time trade has ​decreased ​was during the Global Financial Crisis.

FDI is also rising.

95
Q

Trade and investments in a globalised world - patterns

A

Trading and investments used to be heavily concentrated within ​the most developed countries​.
● Investments -​ ​HICs ​investing into ​LICs​; ​emerging economies​ ​invest in ​LICs
● Trade - HICs ​largest exporters; ​emerging economies also becoming large exporters
(currently make up 41% of world merchandise trade).

LICs ​trading more, but growth show (​less than 1% of global merchandise and commercial services exports.​)

96
Q

Why’s international trade changing (new international relationships)

A

Fair trade: ​Foundation to ensure producers receive better trading conditions and
are not exploited because of their underdeveloped markets.

Trade blocs​: ​Groups of countries in a ​trading agreement, ​allowing them to have
certain ​advantages ​over other countries, such as reduced tariffs or higher quotas.

97
Q

HIC and NEE trade

A

HIC to NEE
- machinery
- capital goods
- transportation
- chemicals

NEE to HIC
- machinery
- consumer goods
- textiles and clothing
- fuels

98
Q

NEE and LIC trade

A

NEE to LIC
- machinery
- electronics
- transport
- fuels

LIC to NEE
- minerals
- metals
- crude oil
- clothing

99
Q

HIC and LIC trade

A

HIC to LIC
- machinery
- electronics
- transport
- capital goods (goods that are used to make more goods)

LIC to HIC
- minerals
- crude oil
- food / raw produce (tea/coffee/tobacco)

100
Q

Access to markets within international trade

A

All countries have ​differential access to markets​. Access to markets refers to a nation or company’s ability to ​trade within the international market​. A country’s access to market is limited by any ​barriers ​that limit a country’s imports and exports.

If access to markets is poor, a country is likely to be negatively affected. Economically, a country would be missing out on ​profits from exports​, and societally, a country may miss out on products (and the poor economy may also negatively affect societal well-being).

101
Q

Factors impacting access to markets

A

Improved access to markets by trade agreements.

Reduces access to markets as trade agreements disallow counrties within them to trade with other countries.

Countries left out of trade agreements must pay tariffs.

102
Q

Differential access to markets - Kenya

A

Struggle to get a good price for the food they sell to European markets, due to the tariffs placed on non-EU agricultural produce as an attempt to protect EU farmers. This has weakened LICs access to markets.

103
Q

SEZs

A

Special Economic Zones ​(SEZs): areas ​within a country ​that do not have the same
trading regulations as the country they are located in. The regulations within the SEZs are
usually​ ​less strict​,​ with lower tariffs and lower taxes, increasing access to markets.

104
Q

STD agreement

A

Special and Differential Treatment (SDT) agreements​: put in place by the WTO to help specifically ​developing markets with ​poor access to markets​. Includes reduced tariffs
and taxes, priority in trading etc.

105
Q

Differential access to markets - wealth

A

HICs ​can afford to pay for higher tariffs on exports and imports, increasing access to markets.

​HICs ​also increase their access to markets through ​FDI ​into foreign markets.

LICs ​may struggle to pay for ​high tariffs​, and cannot save money through offshoring and outsourcing as they do not have the funds. Poorer ​access to markets.

106
Q

Global governance

A

The process of ​multiple nations acting together to manage matters that affect​ ​the entire world​. For example: climate change, famine, epidemics, war.

107
Q

Global governance scales

A

Local to global.

Trade agreements set by the WTO (a ​global institution) affects how trading happens internationally, for example in the EU (an international institution).
In turn, the Department for International Trade (a ​national ​institution) decides what products the UK imports from where.
A ​regional ​institution, such as a warehouse, receives the international products and distributes them.
A ​local ​shop buys the international products from the warehouse.
The effects of global governance on a variety of scales occurs in different respects, such as the environment. Nations sign global agreements, which affects, for example, how much CO2 localities can emit.

108
Q

What does global governance do

A

Global governance ​maintains global systems ​(e.g. the environment, politics, economics etc.) through​ ​global societal norms​, global ​laws​, and global ​institutions.

109
Q

Define a norm

A

A social Norm - mortal and therefore accepted behaviour.

110
Q

Global norms

A

Although norms differ between countries, global governance has worked to develop ​global norms​,
mainly concerning the unfair treatment of people.

Countries may ​disagree ​with ​societal norms in other countries, but there is little that can be done to ​globally govern ​a country’s norms and ideologies, which is where ​international laws are helpful.

111
Q

Laws in global governance

A

International laws are legally binding, unlike a norm, meaning ​failure to comply with this law can result in ​prosecution​. Anything from trading sanctions to attacks can result from countries not respecting international laws.

112
Q

Global institutions

A

In order for countries and people to be ​governed globally​, there are certain ​international institutions that have been developed to ​oversee ​the maintenance of global systems.

They aim to represent and protect all nations.

113
Q

Global institutions - promoting growth and stability

A

Economic equality allowing less developed countries to grow - promoted by WTO regulations like STDs.

Stabilise economic - WB provides development loads and IMF stabilising loads - prevents economic crashes.

Societal growth is promoted by global institutions maintaining social equality.

Social stability is maintained by global institutions, including the ​prevention of conflicts and ​promoting global health​.

Environmental stability is maintained by IGOs and other global institutions, such as non-government organisations (NGOs). The World Wildlife Fund (WWF) works to conserve the environment.

114
Q

Global institutions - exacerbating inequalities and injustices

A

Not representative of every country, putting underrepresented countries at a disadvantage.

The World Bank and the IMF only give loans conditionally​, which can lead countries exposed to exploitation​. It is perhaps injustice to force countries to open their markets up to receive help.

International laws and treaties are ​voluntary​, meaning many institutions do not hold ​full power on global systems.

Despite global institutions’ best efforts, some countries and companies may still ​act against the policies​, which can create inequalities. For example, there is much conspiracy that Japan are acting against the International Whaling Committee by ​illegally​ whaling for profits.

Companies may also ​manipulate the rules of global institutions ​in order to enhance their profits, which creates ​injustices​.

115
Q

Define the concept of the global commons

A

An area that does not belong to a single country​. Rather than belonging to ​nobody​, the commons are supposed to belong to ​everybody​, meaning every country has a right to ​benefit​ ​from the Global Commons.

116
Q

What are the global commons

A

International Waters​- areas of the sea that do not belong to a country.

The Atmosphere ​- the gases that surround the Earth, making life possible.

Outer Space ​- The area after our atmosphere.

Antarctica ​- The only continent without citizens, only scientists live there.

117
Q

Why are the global commons beneficial to society?

A

They provide ​untouched environments for ​research ​and ​wildlife growth​. Animals can ​thrive ​in these environments where humans cannot ​interact​, such as deep sea creatures. ​

Scientific research is also enhanced by these environments, as scientists can gather information about the world without interactions by humans, as well as beyond our world.

118
Q

The tragedy of the Commons

A

Unfortunately, as the commons do not belong to one country, this can leave the commons ​vulnerable ​to ​exploitation​, especially considering these environments are ​rich in resources ​(such as oil, wildlife, minerals etc.).

The ‘shared’ nature of the commons has unfortunately left it vulnerable to issues such as mineral exploitation, fossil fuel extraction, overfishing etc.

Furthermore, the often ​pristine and untouched nature of the commons is also under threat from ​human advancements​. CO2 levels are causing climate change, which affects the ​atmosphere, the oceans, and Antarctica​. Furthermore, technology is, in some cases, threatening these commons as they are becoming more and more explorable every day. Therefore, these environments need the ​proper protection ​in order to stay a beneficial asset to mankind.

119
Q

Protection of global commons - global institutions

A

Global Institutions ​have been created to directly manage issues associated with the global commons so that these issues can be solved in a fair and sustainable way.

For example, between 1973 to 1982 the ​United Nations ​developed The United Nations Convention on the Law of the Sea (UNCLOS), a treaty ​designed to tackle marine pollution,
overfishing and competing territorial claims between states.

120
Q

Protection of global commons - international laws

A

Now effective within the global commons, although these laws are usually set by institutions like the UN, so any non-member countries will not be prosecuted under these laws.

There are several treaties in action to protect ​outer space​, including the Convention on Registration of Objects Launched into Outer Space (Registration Convention), which ensures countries protect outer space by documenting their launchings etc.

121
Q

Protection of global commons - NGOs

A

NGOs ​campaign to protect the commons, by spreading awareness as well as raising money for their protection.

122
Q

Shell in Nigeria (pollution statistics)

A

40,000 people say decades of pollution have severely affected their lives, health and local environment.

123
Q

Shell in Nigeria (social)

A

Peoples jobs and livelihoods lost - farm land destroyed amd crops damaged and ruined / fishing cant take place due to contaminated water / skin diseases and cancer increased due to oil as the waters that have been contaminated are bathing and drinking water sources / abnormal diseases and miscarriages increased / 8cm of refined oil floating ontop of water that supplies community drinking wells

124
Q

Shell in Nigeria (environmental)

A

Decrease in fish biomass / UN concluded it would take 30 years to clean up a vast majority of the oil / thick crusts of ash and tar cover the land where oil spills have caused fires / planting new crops on burnt land is almost impossible

125
Q

Shell in Nigeria (economic)

A

2015 Shell accepted responsibility for 2 spills and agreed to pay £55 million to the Bodo community and assist in the clean up / fishing and farming industries declined.

Alevel - Geography Hammy (4 decks)

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