global systems and global governance Flashcards
define globalisation
process by which nation economies, societies and cultures have become increasingly integrated, through trade, communications, transport and immigration
how can globalisation be measured
KOF index measures social, political and economic dimensions
- countries rated between 0-100
- most globalised are Switzerland, Belgium, Netherlands and UK (mainly europe)
dimensions of globalisation
- economic- increase in free trade, growth of TNCs, faster and cheaper transport, global marketing
- cultural- westernisation, cultural diffusion, migration, global communication
- social- migration, social networks, exchange of ideas
- political- trading groups, global institutions, NGOs, growth of Western democracies
- environmental- green campaigns, global commons
- health- medical advances, pandemics, pharmaceuticals
- technology- higher productivity, communication
what are the factors of production
land- natural resources
labour- human resources of a workforce to produce goods and services
capital- investment
enterprise- human capital
define flows of capital
any physical resource that can be regarded as a manmade aid for production
define core areas
economically important and affect investment/capital and people
define periphery areas
power and many experience exploitation and leakage
different ways flows of capital operates
- foreign direct investment- investment by TNCs like setting up subsidiary companies or through mergers
- repatriation of profits- TNCs invest in overseas production and profit made will be sent back to home country
- aid- provided through UN or made directly from richer countries (ODA)
- migration- poorer to rich countries, but nations may lose more of their skilled labour
define flows of labour
movement of people
flows of labour patterns globally
- africa has the most movement, either within its own continent or to europe
- largest inter regional flow between south and west asia (3 million between 2010-2015)
- most latin america go to north america
- most migration is over short distance
- higher skilled people can afford to go to more developed countries
- north america and europe tend not to leave
- movement in europe due to EU- 700,000 from poland to UK
- UAE had 5th largest international migrant stock in the world, composing 90% of their workforce
features of flows of products
- facilitated by reduction in costs of trade like tariffs and transaction costs
- containerisation has made it easier
- world trade organisation encouraged tariffs to stay low
- regional trading blocs- tariff free
- air travel makes it quicker
- low labour costs abroad meant goods have relocated- dyson moved to malaysia in 2002
features of flow of services
- high level (businesses like finance) vs low level ( for customers like travel and tourism)
- service industries are footloose- operate anywhere
- high level services are concentrated in more developed areas but now also in east asian economies like hong kong
- conglomerates- HSBC has smaller companies in banking, insurance, travel
- decentralisation of low level services to developing world like call centres- outsourcing
features of flow of information
- influence by movement of people
- transfer cultural ideas, language, industrial technology
- digitalisation and satellite technology- global phone networks, internet, media
- help expand knowledge like pharmaceuticals and business services
define and features of global marketing
advertising and selling goods/services across one single market
- brands should make the same product that can be used globally through economies of scale- save money
- markets can be adopted to regional markets (globalisation) e.g mcdonald’s
- coca cola- same bottle design, same taste
global patterns of production
- production has decentralised since 1954, where 95% of manufacturing was located in western europe and north america
- FDI by TNC’s meant production relocated overseas to lower wage economies- global shift
- TNC’s can also transfer technology which have allowed developing countries to improve the productivity of manufacturing
- growing economies in middle east are becoming more prominent in oil exploitation
- china, india and turkey are biggest exporters of textiles and clothes
global patterns of distribution
- manufactured goods are not versatile and far reaching due to advances in transport and communication
- transport time and costs have fallen
global patterns of consumption
- mainly in developed economies
- major trend in growing middle class countries like BRIC’s and MINT’s
factors contributing to globalisation
- communications and technology
- financial systems
- transport systems
- security systems
- management and information systems
- trade agreements
factors contributing to globalisation communications and technology
- development of internet
- 7 billion mobile phones users
- computerised logistics systems
- services like call centres can be outsourced
factors contributing to globalisation financial systems
- financially integrated due to financial deregulation
- regulatory bodies like international monetary fund
- high speed electronic transmission systems and global exchange connectivity means fewer concerns about exchange rates
- banks are global institutions
- communication technology has allowed for more informed decisions in terms of stocks and money
- global banking crisis in 2008-2009- due to free movement of capital
factors contributing to globalisation transport systems
- containerisation- shipped quicker and in larger quantities
- increased size of aircraft
- high speed rail networks- can link urban and rural China
- dry ports- located inland and near to their business, Pakistan has 6 inland dry ports where goods are deposited by producers before being sent to the port
- flights are now cheaper, due to privatisation, and there is more chance
factors contributing to globalisation security systems
- terrorism security measures
- checking food imports
- bio security- checking for harmful organism and transmission of diseases, COVID test passes
- cyber crime- breach of information
- 9/11 has increased border control
- can work together like NATO to deter threats
factors contributing to globalisation management and information systems
- global companies have invested in large production and global marketing- economies of scale
- global value chains- different production stages are in different countries
- enabled through information systems and allows for telecommunications and integrated IT management
- just in time (JIT) systems are more efficient by ensuring the correct quantities are available on time to avoid goods being held in stock
- global corporations focus on outsourcing non strategic activities
- rapid growth of logistics and distribution
what is a trading bloc
group that encourages free trade between member countries without incurring tariffs
define free trade area
trade barriers between countries are eliminated but each member maintains its own tariffs against non member countries
define custom union
trade agreement with common external tariff to non member countries
define common market
trade agreement as well as free flow of goods, services and people
define economic/monetary union
operate as a common market with added integration of a common currency (EU)
advantages of trading blocs
- economic development
- intergovernmental support
- freedom of movement
- easier negotiation of trade with other trading groups
- open borders for sharing technology
- representation as group in world affairs
- created jobs- 3 million directly related to EU in 2011
disadvantages of trading blocs
- lack of access by poorer nations
- trade disputes arising over tariffs and changes
- border and customs authorities face corruption
- loss of sovereignty and pressure to adopt central legislation- ECHR
features of USMCA
- signed by USA, Canada, mexico
- remove all trade barriers, increase investment opportunities and improve economic co-operation
- renegotiated under trump
- USMCA now includes necessity for cars to have at least 75% of components from any member state
advantages of USMCA
- trade between members have quadrupled
- FDI has tripled
- consumer prices in US lowered
disadvantages of USMCA
- blue collar jobs lost in UK like automotive sector
- many mexican farmers went out of business as they couldn’t compete
- environmental impacts- exploit mexican environment
features of ACFTA
- free trade within africa
- life 30 million of africas extremely poor from poverty
features of EU
- 27 members
- free movement of people, goods, services and capital
- single currency euro adopted by 20 members
- uniform product labour and environment regulation
- political globalisation- parliament, ECJ, different institutions
- promote peace
- help negotiate treaties
economic interdependence
- trade- countries rely on other countries to supply their needs
- advances in technology- innovation
- employment
- international economic migration- 2019, 20% total population were international migrants
- TNCs and investment- outsourcing
- supply chains
- industrialisation
political interdependence
- IGOs- international monetary fund, WTO, world bank, UN
- security and stability
- world peace- “golden arches” theory where countries with mcdonald’s will not go to war due to similar cultures
social interdependence
- health- WHO, share of vaccines
- education- foreign exchange
- culture- social ties through migration, indian diaspora in UK
environmental interdependence
- global commons- shared resources, oceans, antarctica
- climate change- paris agreement
- unsustainable practices- air pollution, deforestation can affect on global scale
functions of world bank
- support structure of worlds financial order by regulating the flow of capital
- established after WW2 to steady the global economy and provide financial stability
- help developing countries develop and reduce poverty
- provide long terms investment loans for development projects through IBRD
- encourages and advises start up enterprises
what has the world bank done
- set two goals- end extreme poverty by decreasing those living on less than $1.90 a day and promote shared prosperity by fostering income growth of bottom 40%
- 45 countries pledges $25.1 billion in aid for the worlds poorest countries
criticism of the world bank
- criticised for free market reform being harmful
- run by a small number of economically powerful countries
- dual role of also being a political organisation
- funding top down projects- corruption
- loans are conditional and exposed to exploitation
functions of IMF
- regulator of financial flows and stabiliser for the system
- promotes exchange stability
- bail out loans to resolve problems
- offers financial assistance
criticism of IMF
- severely cut spending in developing countries
- borrowing country has to pay back rescue loan back at high interest loans
- lack of concern for democracy or human rights
- slow to react to crisis situations
- loans are conditional and exposed to exploitation
functions of WTO
- facilitating international trade
- provides stability
- encouraging removal of barriers and promotes trading blocs
- resolve trading disputes- EY and Latin America on bananas
- holds talks to reach multilateral agreements
what has the WTO done
- doha development round- reforming trade in agricultural produce
criticism of WTO
- pursue an agenda driven by business interstate
- rules undermine sovereignty
- leading world economies are members
- negotiations are slow
- disagreement between HDEs and developing economies- USA, China and India won’t compromise tariffs, emerging economies insist on large cuts in subsidies paid to US + EU
positives of unequal flows of people
- reduces unemployment and labour shortages- 44% of cleaning jobs in london taken by migrants
- reduces inequality as foreign workers earn more
- remittances sent back
- migrants pay taxes and spend money
- multiculturalism
negatives of unequal flows of people
- developing countries losing young and talented workers- brian drain
- over dependent on remittances- 2009 Estonia economy shrank by 13% due to loss of construction jobs in UK
- strain in health and education services
- ethnic and cultural conflict
- injustice- thousands of migrants died building facilities in Qatar for world cup
positives of unequal flows of money
- remittances
- loans from world bank to fund projects and improve services
- investment from TNCs raise incomes and reduce poverty
- aid can help LICs
negatives of unequal flows of money
- leakages from TNCs
- TNCs put pressure on governments to alleviate issues
positives of unequal flows of ideas
- privatisation can lower consumer prices
- free trade can attract investment
- multiculturalism allows integration into global economy
negatives of unequal flows of ideas
- deregulation can lead to social injustices and environmental degradation
- LDEs can be outcompeted by free trade
- undermine sovereignty
positives of unequal flows of technology
- information and data flows- access to internet
- labour saving tech
negatives of unequal flows of technology
- technology is inaccessible to developing countries
- hard for LICs to outcompete with lack of technology
- robots and AI can put people out of work
explain lorenz curve
trends of inequality between income shared cumulatively and individually
explain gini coefficient
- provides a number between 0 and 1 where 0 means wealth is divided among the population and 1 being all wealth goes to 1 person
- coefficient above 0.4 means economy is destabilising
- south africa and botswana highest
- belgium and norway lowest
inequality between countries
- globalisation is reducing inequality through transfer of capital
- poor countries still lag behind
- many developing countries are rapidly growing (9.27% in Ethiopia)
inequality within countries
- advances countries inequality has worsened
- china share of bottom 50% and top 1% has widened
what are unequal power relations
developed countries wield more power, allowing them to steer global systems
- can lead to geopolitical events like territorial events (israel vs palestine), exploration rights and political allies
russias annexation of crimea as an example of unequal power relations
- crimea was once part of russia but was ceded to ukraine
- 2014 revolution in ukraine during “euromaiden” political movement- demanded closer ties with EU
- putin wanted to keep sevastopol (naval port in crimea) and safeguard russian population there
- 114 UN member states do not recognise the annexation
- russia was suspended from G8
- EU and US imposed trade sanctions on russia
climate change as an example of unequal power relations
- many of the biggest contributors are the richest countries, who are reluctant to agree to proposals to limit climate change
- it is the poorest countries that are the most affected like tuvalu but find it difficult to influence other countries
chinas power as an example of unequal power relations
- investment in africa- extract raw materials and help invest in their infrastructure
- development of the port of Mombusa in Kenya with a $14 billion road and bridge link to Nairobi and on to South Sudan’s oil fields
- 1.5 million chinese now in africa
-belt and road initiative (BRI)- building a network of roads and rail, china- pakistan corridor to give china more access to arabian sea, rail and road across central asia to help landlocked countries
geopolitical concerns of rising china power
- form of economic imperialism that gives china too much inch leverage
- can expect some repayment from countries they are investing in, who may not be able to repay the debts
- chinas claim to sovereignty of the south china sea
- expanded military presence
define comparative advantage
countries specialising in goods and services they excel at producing, and trade these for things they are not as good at producing (indian textiles vs british industry)
define protectionism
protection from foreign competition through duties or quotas imposed on imports
trends in volume and pattern of trade
- free market ideas came at the end of 20th century
- regional trade agreements (RTAs) emerged and WTO was introduced for free trade
- G7 countries account for 50% of global trade
- most intra-regional in europe
- biggest inter-regional between asia to N america, asia pacific to europe
- sub-saharan smallest intra regional
- china is largest exporter of goods
define import licenses
licenses issued by the government that allows certain goods to be imported freely from a specific source like military goods and technology
define import quota
a limit on the quantity of a good imported into a country in a given period
define subsidies
grants given to domestic producers to reduce their costs so they can compete with foreign goods like EU agricultural policy
define sanctions
restriction on exports for political reasons to maintain international peace
define embargo
government order that restricts exchange with a specific country or a specific good, usually due to political circumstances
define regulatory
restriction on imports based on criteria like quality of standards
trends in investment
- in 2019, FDI inflows totalled $1.39 trillion
- top FDI recipients are USA, China, Singapore and Brazil
- top FDI recipients as % of GDP are congo, malta, guyana and HK
- developed countries invest in emerging, but emerging also invest in less developed (China to Africa)
reasons that attract FDI
- manufacturing industries- outsourcing
- natural resource development
- financial business services
- large and accessible consumer markets
- lower business taxes like Ireland and Cyprus
USA trading relationships
- USMCA
- trump aimed to pursue bilateral trade deals with 20 separate countries
- trans-pacific partnership- trade deal between 12 countries in the pacific, 40% of worlds economic output
- transatlantic trade and investment partnership- free trade between US and EU, aim to withdraw barriers for big businesses
EU trading relationships
- customs union
- 27 members freely trade
- external tariff barriers to countries outside
- 65% trade intra-regional
- canada-EU free trade agreement
- anti free trade movements- like farmers in belgium and netherlands against cheap produce from US
china trading relationships
- 20% of all exports and 15% of all imports
- import raw materials form developing countries, like latin america and africa
- export cheap goods
- belt and road intiative
india trading agreements
- food security is a crucial issue
- success of green revolution
- biggest population- young
- top exports are petroleum and checmials
- export to US, EU and UAE
latin america trading agreements
- mercosur- single market and customs union, mainly export raw materials, view EU+NA as main markets
- pacific alliance- more open to bilateral agreements, see asia-pacific as main market
- likelihood both groups will merge into a large free trade area
sub saharan africa trading agreements
- minimal intra-regional trade
- mainly export raw materials
- low skills and infrastructure
- widespread corruption
- main trading partner EU, and more now China
- ACFTA- worlds largest free trade area, 54/55 african nations, 30 million will be lifted out of extreme poverty, $450B income by 2035
fair trade trading agreement
- goals to help producers in LDEs achieve better trading prices
- coffee, tea, bananas
- payment for higher prices and improve social and environmental standards
define and features of SDTs
-formed by WTO
- for least developed countries to bypass developed countries’ tariffs
- profits made will support diversification into other industries
- Madagascar, Haiti, Nepal
- everything but arms agreement, EU and LDCs can trade anything duty free part from arms
impacts of differential access to markets on economy
+ higher market access- economic growth
- mainly dependent on primary products with price fluctuations
- harder to establish new industries
differential access to market social impacts
+ increases standard of living with higher market access
- lower quality of life
- low paid and unstable jobs
structure of TNCs
- headquarters in HICs
- research and development can be found in different HICs depending on the markets they want to access
- manufacturing found in LICs
TNCs in primary sector
- based wherever the resources are
- tend to be in LICs
- new technology has meant more resources available- fracking
TNCs in secondary sector
- south and southeast asia
- low labour costs
- work ethic- willing to work long hours
- government incentives like tax breaks and enterprise zones
- agglomeration- companies with similar industries locate near each other
TNCs in tertiary sector
- footloose
- locate where labour is cheap, education is good, close to markets
- langauge
strategies with TNCs
- rationalisation- replacing people with machines
- reorganisation- improvements in production,administration and marketing
- diversification- developing new products
- horizontal integration- M+A, buying a similar company (kraft foods took over cadbury, and then later merged with Heinz)
- vertical integration- buying a company before of after the same line of production (BP owns oil and gas fields, as well as refineries and services station)
advantages of TNCs in host country
- generates jobs and income
- brings new technology
- multiplier effect
- diversification
- improvement in services
disadvantages of TNCs in host country
- exploitation
- environmental damage
- leakage of profits
advantages of TNCs in country of origin
- cheaper goods
- specialise in more developed fields- management, financial services
disadvantages of TNCs for country of origin
- deindustrialisation
- de multiplier effect
- unemployment
features of apple as a TNC
- US TNC that focuses on electronics
- 6th largest TNC
- 2019- 510 apple retail stores across 22 countries worldwide
- grow in reputation for quality and they attract a market of brand loyal customers
- largest IT company by revenue
spatial organisation of apple
- 5 data centres in US
- HQ and research and design in California
- european HQ in Ireland with 6,000 workers on iMac production line, online customer support and call centre
- foxconn factory in shenzhen and zhengzhou assembly iphones and ipads
- main products outsourced to Taiwan
why does apple relocate to china
- outsourcing is cheaper
- large and young population
- low production cost
apple positive impacts on ireland
- employs 6000 workers at hollyhill,cork
- logistics hub enhances irelands reputation- over 100 jobs
- 3000 jobs in ancillary work (business services)
- apples presence attracted other high tech firms
- multicultural- over 90 nationalities
- inspiration for local education
- infrastructural improvements
apple negative impacts on ireland
- not enough jobs for locals
apple positive impacts on china
- employs 1.3 million employees
apple negative impacts on china
- poor working conditions- 62 hrs a week and $300 per month
- exposed to toxic chemicals- 50 workers poisoned in 2010
- in 2017, student interns found to be working excessive hours
- 2009-2010 - 10 suicides linked to foxconn
apple environmental policies
- 100% renewable energy and established its own company “apple energy” which is mainly solar energy
- removed all PVC plastics and toxic chemicals
- 55% reduction in CO2 emissions from 2015
bananas impact on environment
- susceptible to disease
- most treated with chemicals
- TNCs apply around 30kg of active ingredients per hectare
- banana industry has largest agrochemical input into the environment after cotton
- plantations cause deforestation, soil infertility and loss of biodiversity
bananas as a product
- 4th most important food product within LDCs
- staple food for 500m people
trading of bananas
- most exports from Latin America and Caribbean- Costa Rica, Ecuador
- important cash crop- although 80% are consumed locally and nationally
- top 4 producers- india, china, indonesia and brazil- however consume most bananas
- dominated by ACP (africa, caribbean and pacific) and “dollar producers” of latin america
- largest importers are EU and USA
importance of TNCs in banana trade
- trade was dominated by 4 large TNCs- Chiquita, Dole, Del Monte, Fyttes
- vertically integrated into the supply chain
- 2002- 5 big companies controlled 70% of the market but fell to 45% in 201- companies have free themselves from the ownership of plantations in favour of guaranteed supply chains from farmers
- costa rican farmers now sell to TNCs as distributors or straight to retailers
banana trade wars
- longest dispute of 20 years
- 1975, EU negotiated a trade agreement with 71 countries that were former colonies- lome convention
- given SDTs to supply EU market with APC group, which didn’t benefit other group or TNCs
- 1997, WTO ordered EU to cease discrimination
banana trade revenue
- most internationally traded fruit- $15b revenue each year
- 85% of price paid by the end consumer stays in the richer country
- retailers take the most money
- workers received 5-9% of total value of bananas
farming of bananas
- monoculture plantations
- grown in rainy, lowland tropical regions
where is the banana trade being relocated to and why
- west africa
- lower labour costs and weaker legislation
banana fair trade
- 90% of all fair trade bananas come from latin america
- growing industry as consumers are more aware of environmental and social impacts
- small scale farmers get a fairer price
social positives of globalisation
- greater sharing of ideas and lifestyles
- globalisation- mcdonald’s
- increased awareness of global news and trends
- transfer of skills
- improvements of living standards
social negatives of globalisation
- cultural tensions
- exploitation of workforce
economic positives of globalisation
- growth in international economic migration like Philippines to UAE
- medium income economies have developed rapidly as a result of inward investment
- TNCs have grown
- trade agreements- expand among developing countries
- honda, nissan and toyota used UK as base for car production- led to cheaper imports of cars
- lower priced goods
- development of higher paying jobs
economic negatives of globalisation
- loss of traditional manufacturing jobs in developed countries
- leakage of profits
- over dependent
- interdependence of economies- global financial crisis
- trade wars and escalating tariffs
- economic inequalities within countries
environmental positives of globalisation
- global agreements like Paris climate agreement
environmental negatives of globalisation
- hard for countries to come to conclusions and agreements- china and india not wanting to cut carbon emissions
- ignores environmental issues like finite resources, pollution, waste
- greater movement of invasive species and diseases
political positives of globalisation
- nations can work cooperatively
- war stability as countries do not want to risk loss of resources due to interdependence
- IGOs help maintain standards and keep peace
political negatives of globalisation
- rise of populism- Brexit, Trump’s “make america greater again”
- western countries are over powerful , especially in IGOs
what do hyperglobalists believe about globalisation
support globalisation and beliefs there is a single global markets supported by open networks and flows of goods, people and information
what do sceptics believe about globalisation
free movement of goods leads to added protectionist measures and marginalise the poor
what do transformationalists believe about globalisation
accept process of increasing globalisation but the role of governments is changing
define global governance
the ways in which global affairs affecting the whole world are managed
issues that global governance focus on
- environment
- trade
- reduction of poverty
- human rights
- civil conflict
- financial instability
important actors in global governance
- TNCs- enforce ethical codes of conduct
- national governments- regulate TNCs
- supranational bodies- EU+ WTO
- consumers- making moral decisions
- farmers- collective movements
- NGOs- raise public awareness, Oxfam and Greenpeace
methods in global governance
- can help regulate global issues by enforcing sets of rules that have been agreed on
- global systems are being reproduced to extend and strengthen developed countries’ reach, and make them more powerful
- international law helps to bring countries together
- norms are accepted standards of behaviour
background of UN
- founded in 1945
- 193 member states
- international peace, security and cooperation
what’s are the 8 millennium development goals and evaluation
2000-2015
- eradicate extreme poverty, child mortality, combat HIV/AIDS
+ people living under $1.25 per day has halved
+ number of children not going to primary school has dropped by half
+ people receiving HIV treatment increased by 15x
- 9% of the world still in extreme poverty
- 1/6 cults are illiterate, 2/3 of them are women
what are the 17 sustainable development goals
2015-2030
- sustainable cities and communities- 1.1 billion residents are in slums
- safe water- 2.2 billion lack safe drinking water
- conserve oceans and seas- against acidification, warming, plastic pollution
- sustainable economic growth- 1/4 young people are not in education or employment
criticism of UN
- limited by size as it is difficult to gain consensus from all members
- concern that Africa lags behind
- not binding
define multi scalar power
ability to influence behaviour and attitudes through interactions at different scales
what is agenda 21
- summit in rio de janeiro in 1992
- blueprints for sustainable development
- non binding
- 178 national governments signed up
- social and economic issues
- each local authority in UK is in line with UN objectives
what is paris agreement 2015
- ratified by nearly all national governments- Trump withdrew in 2020
- keep global temperature rise below 2C above pre industrial levels
- limit temperature increase to 1.5C
what are operational NGOs
provide frontline support like Oxfam
what are advocacy NGOs
raise awareness and gain support like Greenpeace
positives of NGOs
- raise awareness
- protect human rights and provide essential supplies
- politically and economically independent
- less need for international agreements
- influence governments to make changes
- more accessible
negatives of NGOs
- rely on public donations and support
- often require help from other organisations
- no power to change laws
define global commons
resource areas that live outside of the political reach of any one national state
what are the global commons and who controls them
high seas- UNCLOS
atmosphere- UN framework on climate change like Kyoto protocol
antarctica- antarctic treaty system (ATS)
outer space- moon treaty 1979
cyberspace?
what is tragedy of the commons and problems
- historically, it was difficult to access resources in there areas
- now due to technology, they are more vulnerable to exploitation
- resource scarcity also leads to increased pressure on global commons
- climate change has also lead to damage to the commons- like greenhouse gases in the atmosphere
physical geography of antarctica
- 14 millions square km
- mountainous- 2300 elevation average
- divided into eastern and western portions by the transatlantic mountain chain
- active volcano- mount Erebus
- lake vostok- one of the worlds largest lakes, below the ice sheet
- east antarctica is growing, west antarctica is melting
- ecosystem is not diverse- mosses and lichens, only insects and marine life
climate of antarctica
- coldest- average -40C
- windiest- katabatic (downward movement of cold air), can reach 200 mph
- precipitation as snow, 50 mm a year
- polar desert
- december will get 24 hrs of light and june/july will get 24hrs of dark
define and features of ecosystem resilience
- ability to recover from a severe disturbance and returning back to equilibrium
- linked to adaptation
- endemic species are usually capable of surviving
- climate change may make it harder for ecosystem to bounce back
whaling threat to Antarctica
- oil, while bone, meat
- 1960s, whaling was no longer viable as populations and decreased by over 90%
- threats from pro whaling nations like japan and norway
- whales are slow breeders
fishing threat to antarctica
- 1960s, russian ships explored the southern coastline- antarctic toothfish
- krill underpins food chain, and is fished for its oil and to feed farmed fish- recent demand for health benefits
- commercial fishing and bycatch like albatross
- direct destruction from ships and fishing gear
- ships dump waste- marine life ingest and get stuck
climate change effect on antarctica
- southern ocean increased by 1C since 1955- adeline penguin colonies declined, melting of snow, glaciers decline like thwaites glacier largest contributor to sea levels rise, ronne and ross sea ice shelves increased flow rate of glaciers
- east antarctica and sea ice expansion- increase westerly winds, more rain and snow, storms freshening local water, melting of continental ice
- ocean acidification- increased co2, corrosive to shells and organisms
mineral resources threat to antarctica
- banned by antarctic treaty until 2048
- difficult and dangerous conditions makes it unviable
- coal found in two mountains- low quality
- estimated to cost over $100 per barrel to transport oil
- rumours say china want to break madrid protocol to use resources, just opened their third base
scientific research threat to antarctica
- small number of permanent research stations
- vehicle exhausts, construction of buildings, disposal of waste
- dogs like huskies were used to assist, but have since been banned as they were often fed seals or penguins
tourism threat to antarctica
- mid november to march
- seabourne, air bourne or fly cruises
- glacial landscapes, wildlife, activities, historic sites (McMurdo sound)
- few hundred in late 1950s, to 106,000 in 2022-23
- more tour operators joining IAATO means Antarctica may turn into more mainstream tourism
- 34% of tourists from US
negative impacts of tourism in antarctica
- disturbance to fragile ecosystem
- tourist system coincides with peak breeding season
- overflying can cause stress to bird- terns
- accidentally importing alien selfies- annual meadow grass has colonised ice free areas of Antarctica
- oil spills- MS explorer crash in 2007 disrupted penguin colonies
what is the antarctic treaty system
collection of agreements that work to protect antarctica
features of the antarctic treaty
- one of the most successful
- drafted in 1959, ratified by original 12 in 1961
- no country owns 60 degrees S latitude
- annual meetings with original 12 members and 16 consultative parties (NGOs)
- no military use
- restrict to scientific and research activity, all research is of public domain
- treaty can be modified at any time with unanimous agreement
- all stations and operations can be inspected at any time
evaluation of antarctic treaty
- treaty is not mandatory
- inspections do not occur often
- all decisions must be unanimous- good and bad
features of CCAMLR
- treaty in 1980 to protect marine life, especially krill
- ross sea MPA came into effect in 2017- protected for 35 years
- rational use of marine living
- 2 MPAs- 5% of world ocean below 60 degrees
- krill catch limits
- less by catch as only mid water trawls are permitted
evaluation of CCAMLR
- not successful as still illegal fishing- Patagonian toothfish (under 3000 tonnes in 2003)
- difficulty in deciding what “rational” means- China warns rational use compromised by MPA
- bogged down by political disputes- 2015 Russia held out against protection of Ross Sea
- fishing quotas not reduced
features of convention for the conservation of antarctica seals 1972
- applied south 60 degrees
- southern elephant seal, rosss ear
- cannot be killed or captures
- can be used for scientific study or rational and human use
evaluation of convention for the conservation of antarctica seals 1972
- fur seals increased 2-4 million breeding at south georgia- however potentially population explosion and suggestion to loosen laws to prevent damage to antarctic grass
features of madrid protocol 1991
- bans mining and exploration
- devoted for peace and science
- waste to be returned to country of origin
- ban can be modified if all parties agreed
- to be reviewed in 2048
- china has an interest in exploiting- increased number of research stations but others argue there are ulterior motives to sustain their own population
features of international whaling commission
- global body responsible for conservation of whales
- complete protection of whale species
- limit numbers and size that can be caught- prohibit capture of suckling calves of female whales
- open and closed seasons for whaling
- 1994, southern social whale sanctuary banned commercial whaling
- whale moratorium 1986- ban on commercial whaling for all stocks but does not apply to indigenous
japans role in whaling
- evade bans with “special permits” for scientific research
- 2014, ICJ ruled japan was covering for commercial whaling
- withdrew membership of IWC
- killed upwards of 300 in 2016
- may lead to other states like Russia following
evaluation of IWC
- 30,000 killed since moratorium
- political deadlock- IWC divided
features of International association of antarctica tour operators
- founded in 1991
- advocate and promote safe and environmentally responsible tourism
- made up of 102 member companies
- visits from ships have to be of short duration (1-3 hrs) and max 100 passengers
- 1-3 passengers per day using inflatable rafts or helicopter to transfer
- requires 75% of staff to have previous antarctica experience
evaluation of IAATO
+ people adhere to rules
+ visitors tend to be well educated
+ scott polar research institute says tourism has had minimal impact overall
how to manage climate change
individual agreements have to be set to control climate change (paris agreement)
who are ASOC
- coalition on 20 NGOs- friends of the earth, greenpeace
- wants to establish network of MPAs
- only NGO with official observer status in ATS meetings
- current campaigns include creating long term for sustainable tourism- liability for those who damage, ban on discharge of black and grey water
evaluation of ASOC
+ helped in successfully blocking minerals convention
+ helped to establish antarctic ocean alliance which supports CCAMLR with MPA
role of greenpeace
- good at gaining support
- influence and educate
- report on issues
- boost donations
evaluation of management of antarctica as a whole
+ one of the most successful
- environmental protocol to be reviewed in 2048
- impacts of human activity
- new MPAs will likely cause conflict
- climate change
- china and russia claiming the land
