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coastal systems and landscapes Flashcards

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1
Q

are coasts a closed or open system and define the term

A

open- both mass and energy are allowed in and out

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2
Q

define inputs and give examples

A

material/energy moving into the system
tides, waves, sun, air pressure, settlement

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3
Q

define output and give examples

A

material/energy moving out the system
ocean currents, rip tides, sediment transfer

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4
Q

define stores and give examples

A

individual parts of a system
beaches, dunes, salt marshes, erosion

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5
Q

define flows/transfers and give examples

A

links between components
lsd, erosion, transportation, mass movement

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6
Q

define dynamic equilibrium

A

there is a balance in the system and movement of sediment is contained

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7
Q

define negative feedback loops

A

changes are counteracted so it remains in a stable, original state

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8
Q

what factors are needed for beaches to exist in dynamic equilibrium

A
  • supply of sand
  • change in sea level
  • energy of waves
  • location of shoreline
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9
Q

define positive feedback loops

A

one change from the original state triggers an ongoing change which leads it further away from the original

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10
Q

sources of energy in coasts

A
  • wind
  • waves
  • currents
  • tides
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11
Q

what is wind

A

air moving from high to low air pressure, with larger pressure gradients causing stronger winds

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12
Q

roles of wind

A
  • prevailing wind influences lsd
  • creates waves
  • fetch
  • agent of erosion
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13
Q

define fetch

A

distance of open water over which a wind blows uninterrupted

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14
Q

how are waves made

A

wind moves across surface of water, causing frictional drag and creating waves

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15
Q

factors affecting wave energy

A
  • fetch
  • wind speed
  • wind duration
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16
Q

define swash

A

water washing up the beach

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17
Q

define backwash

A

water going straight back down via gravity

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18
Q

features of contructive waves

A
  • low height
  • low frequency (6-8 a min)
  • long wavelength
  • strong swash, weak backwash
  • deposits material
  • creates a gentle sloping beach
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19
Q

features of destructive waves

A
  • high height
  • 10-14 a min
  • weak swash, strong backwash
  • erodes material
  • steeply sloping beach
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20
Q

why do waves break

A
  1. waves start out at sea in a circular orbit
  2. friction slows the base of the waves
  3. causes orbit to become more elliptical
  4. top of wave breaks over and crashes onto beach
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21
Q

waves negative feedback loop

A
  1. constructive waves build up beach
  2. encourages destructive waves
  3. destructive waves moves material back towards the beach
  4. creates a steep beach profile
  5. material is removed over time
  6. encourages constructive waves
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22
Q

define wave refraction

A

waves break on an irregularly shaped coastline

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23
Q

why is there greater erosion at headlands in wave refraction

A

wave energy is concentrated here and dissipates to bays

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24
Q

define swash aligned beach

A

waves break parallel to shore

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25
Q

define drift aligned beach

A

waves break at an angle to the beach and allows lsd to occur

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26
Q

define wave diffraction

A

spreading of waves after going through a narrow gap

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27
Q

define currents

A

permanent or seasonal movement of water in seas and oceans

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28
Q

what factors causes currents

A
  • wind
  • variation in water temperature
  • variation in salinity
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29
Q

define longshore currents

A

waves approach the coastline at an angle and the current is parallel to it, transports sediment parallel

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30
Q

define rip currents

A

strong currents moving away from shoreline between 2 waves

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31
Q

define upwelling

A

global pattern of currents circulating in oceans can cause deep cold water to move towards surface

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32
Q

define tides

A

periodic rise and fall of ocean surface

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33
Q

what are tides caused by

A

gravitational pull of moon and sun and centrifugal force

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34
Q

define spring tides

A

highest height tide and lowest low tide when sun and moon are aligned

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35
Q

define neap tide

A

lowest high tide and highest low tide when sun and moon are perpendicular so forced act against

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36
Q

features of high energy coastlines

A
  • high inputs of energy
  • large waves
  • high rate of erosion
  • strong winds
  • rocky landforms
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37
Q

features of low energy coastlines

A
  • low energy input
  • smaller, gentle waves
  • short fetches
  • salt marshes and mudflats
  • higher rate of deposition
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38
Q

define sediment cell

A

stretch of coastline, usually bordered by prominent headlands, where movement of sediment is contained

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39
Q

examples of sediment sources

A
  • river- 90% of coastal sediment
  • cliff erosion
  • lsd
  • glaciers
  • offshore
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40
Q

define sediment budget and the different types

A

balance between sediment being added and removed from coastal system

positive budget= more sediment added then removed so shoreline builds to sea
negative budget= more sediment removed then added so shoreline recedes

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41
Q

erosion processes

A
  • hydraulic action
  • wave quarrying
  • abrasion
  • attrition
  • solution
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42
Q

define hydraulic action

A

waves crash onto cliff face and air is forces into cracks and the high pressure causes the cracks to force apart

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43
Q

define cavitation

A

bubbles found within the water may implode under high pressure creating tiny jets of water that erode the rock

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44
Q

define wave quarrying

A

waves break on cliff face and exerts a pressure which directly pull away rocks from cliff face

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45
Q

define abrasion

A

sediment is picked up by the sea and hurled at the cliff to rub in a sandpaper action

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46
Q

define attrition

A

rocks rub against each other and become smaller and rounder

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47
Q

define solution

A

mildly acidic seawater can cause alkaline rocks like limestone to be eeoded

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48
Q

factors affecting erosion

A
  • human activity
  • geology
  • bathymetry of sea bed
  • size of fetch
  • frequency of storm events
  • amounts of weathering
  • strength of wind
  • landforms
  • geological structure of coastline
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49
Q

how are headlands and bays made

A

discordant coastline where differential erosion occurs, wave refraction focus on headlands and energy is dissipated towards bays where deposition creates beaches

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50
Q

process of wave cut platforms

A
  1. high waves concentrate erosion at base of cliff
  2. cliff is undercut forming a wave cut notch
  3. undercut cliff collapses and cliff retreats
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51
Q

negative feedback of wave cut platform

A

eventually waves can out reach the cliff which reduces erosion or base is too wide so erosive power isn’t strong enough so rage of retreat slows

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52
Q

process of CASS

A
  1. cracks in resistant rock are eroded by hydraulic action or abrasion and widens into cave
  2. erosion focuses more on the headland and opens into an arch
  3. weathering weakens the top snd erosion creates a wave cut platform which makes it collapse into a stack
  4. sea attacks the base and a wave cut notch will undercut the stack and will be left as a stump
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53
Q

what is a geo

A

narrow and deep cleft in the cliff face with erosion on lines of weakness to make long, narrow sides

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54
Q

what’s the blowholes

A

sea caves get punctured and water blasts upwards

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55
Q

define weathering and the 3 different types

A

breakdown of rocks over time, weakening it and making it more susceptible to erosion
physical/mechanical, chemical, biological

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56
Q

negative feedback with weathering

A

removal of weathered rock is slower than rage of weathering which will lead to a buildup of debris at the base, which protected the cliff from erosion and weathering

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57
Q

positive feedback of weathering

A

rate of removal of rock is faster than rage of weathering, so the cliff is more exposed to erosion and more weathering

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58
Q

examples of mechanical weathering

A

freeze-thaw weathering- water enters a crack in the rock and over time freezes and melts, which expands the volume by 10% and weakens it
salt crystallisation- salt water evaporates and leaves salt crystals behind which expands cracks in rock or corrode rock like iron
wetting and drying- rocks rich in clay expand when wet and contract when dry

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59
Q

examples of chemical weathering

A

carbonation- rainwater absorbs CO2 from sir to form weak carbonic acid which reacts with calcium carbonate in rock to form calcium bicarbonate which is easily dissolved
oxidation- reaction of mineral with oxygen e.g iron rusting
solution- dissolving of rock minerals
hydration- physical addition of water to minerals which makes them more susceptible to chemical weathering
hydrolysis- mildly acidic water reacts with minerals

60
Q

examples of biological weathering

A
  • plants roots grow in the cracks and widen them
  • water running through decaying vegetation becomes acidic and leads to increased chemical weathering
61
Q

define mass movement

A

movement of large amounts of land

62
Q

factors dependent on the type of mass movement

A
  • slope
  • geology
  • vegetation
  • saturation of ground
  • temperature
63
Q

what is soil creep

A

extremely slow form of movement of individual soil particles as particles rise and fall due to wetting and drying and respond to gravity downwards

64
Q

what is a landslide

A

large block of land moves down cliff face very quickly due to heavy rainfall getting between the joints and bedding planes which reduces friction

65
Q

what are mudflows

A

earth and mud flowing downhill over unconsolidated or weak bedrock (clay) as water gets trapped and increases pore water pressure and forces rock particles apart

66
Q

what is rockfall

A

sudden collapse of breaking away of individual, resistant rock fragments down a steep cliff, when exposed to mechanical weathering or earthquakes and form scree as a temporary store

67
Q

what is slumping

A

slide surface is curved and wears unconsolidated clays causes land to collapse under its own weight

68
Q

what is run off

A

overland flow occurs down a slope and small particles and water are moved downslope into littoral slope

69
Q

what is solifluction

A

surface level of soil thaws and becomes extremely saturated cashing it to slide down the permafrost

70
Q

processes of transportation

A

traction- large boulders roll along the seabed
saltation- smalls tones bounce along the seabed
suspension- very small particles carried in moving water
solution- dissolved materials being transported in moving water

71
Q

what is longshore drift

A

movement of sediment along the beach at the angle of the prevailing wind, where swash loves material up and backwash moves it back down via gravity

72
Q

processes of deposition

A

gravity settling-waters velocity decreases so sediment starts to become deposited
flocculation- clay particles clump together due to chemical attraction and then sink due to high density

73
Q

features of besches

A
  • stretch from high to low tide line
  • created when waves lose their energy and deposit material
  • sand provides beaches with a gentle gradient (less than 5 degrees)
  • shingle provides steeper gradients of around 10-20 degrees
74
Q

define ridges and runnels

A

ridges and troughs running parallel to the coast near the low water mark

75
Q

define ripples

A

small elongated ridges

76
Q

define cusps

A

semicircular shaped depressions with coarser material around the edge

77
Q

define berms

A

series of ridges that run the length of the beach and form near the high tide mark

78
Q

define storm beach

A

ridge found near the back of the beach composed of larger sediment

79
Q

formation of a spit

A
  1. prevailing wind moves sediment via lsd
  2. when coastline changed the momentum continues carrying sediment out to sea
  3. salt marsh develop behind made up of halophytes and vegetation helps stabilise the land
  4. hooks can form when prevailing wind changes
  5. spit stops when river estuary cuts it off
80
Q

difference between simple and compound spit

A

simple spit is straight whereas compound spit has hooks

81
Q

define tombolo

A

sand and shingle connecting the mainland to an island

82
Q

how can tombolos form

A
  • lsd
  • marine transgression where sand and shingle migrate gradually onshore
  • wave refraction and diffraction
83
Q

define offshore bar

A

semi-submerged rushes of sand created offshore from the coast

84
Q

how are offshore bars formed

A
  • waves break too early
  • destructive waves erode the sand from beach and deposit offshore
85
Q

define barrier besch

A

spit develops and joins two parts of coastline with lagoon behind

86
Q

how are barrier beaches formed

A
  • marine transgression when sea levels rise and gradually pushes sediment towards the coastline
  • lsd over areas of water like bays
87
Q

define barrier island

A

bar detached from mainland

88
Q

how are barrier islands formed

A

proximal energy (where spit no longer meets coastline) has been breached and detached to create an island

89
Q

define eustatic sea level change

A

global change in sea level due to rise or fall in the level of the sea itself

90
Q

how does eustatic sea level change work

A
  • if the climate warms then the ice caps melt and sea levels rise, but if the climate cools then ice builds back up and sea levels fall
  • thermal expansion and contraction refers to water expanding when getting warmer, which increase the volume
  • positive feedback loop as ice has a high albedo (reflection of sunlight) and as this melts it exposed more land which increases temperature so more ice melts etc
91
Q

define isostatic sea level change

A

local change in sea level due to land rising or falling relative to the sea

92
Q

how does isostatic change affect sea level rise

A

glaciation pushes land downwards and allows the land to sink relative to the sea and the water moves up

93
Q

define isostatic rebound

A

when the land springs back up due to glaciers melting, causing a see-saw effect
like scotland and northwest rising and south subsiding

94
Q

define tectonic sea level change

A

tectonic hazards along plate boundsries cause land subsidence which leads to isostatic sea level rise

95
Q

define halosere

A

succession in saline environments

96
Q

define psammosere

A

succession of plants on sand

97
Q

define slacks

A

small bodies of water that reach down to the water table and are high in biodiversity

98
Q

define blowouts

A

sand dunes that have had their vegetation cover destroyed by grazing animals or human activity

99
Q

define mudflats

A

deposition of fine silts and clays in sheltered low energy environments like estuaries

100
Q

sand dune formation

A
  1. object to trap sediment and allow sand to accumulate around
  2. pioneer plants like prickly seawort will stabilise the land to create an embryo dune
  3. sea gets pushed back as land rises and allows space for a new embryo dune to grow
  4. more sand accumulates and allows the dune to grow into a fore dune with plants like marram grass
  5. plants will die and leave humus to grow new plants
  6. biodiversity increases and turns into yellow dune
  7. then grey dune with sea buckthorn
  8. slacks
  9. mature dune with trees
101
Q

development of salt marshes

A
  1. mud and other fine material begin to accumulate in a coastal region as they are deposited by flocculations
  2. pioneer halophytes like spartina begin to develop and trap mud
  3. more mud accumulates and gets thicker and new species grow like marsh grass and sea lavender
  4. larger species slow the current and add humus
  5. land starts to rise in mud and an area no longer inundated by salt water can grow reeds and rushes
  6. hollows may form where sea water gets trapped then evaporates
102
Q

define submerging coastal landforms

A

when sea level rises or land sinks

103
Q

define fjords

A

long narrow arm of sea formed from a submerged u shaped valley

104
Q

how are fjords formed

A
  • u shaped valleys are created from the erosive power of glaciers, eroding sides and bottom
  • when the glaciers melt it will cause eustatic sea level rise and flood the valley
  • deeper in the middle section as terminal moraine is where material was deposited at the end of glacier
105
Q

define rias and how are they formed

A

drowned river valleys with a dendritic pattern when rising sea levels down the valleys of rivers

106
Q

define dalmations coasts

A

submerged river valleys parallel to the sea and make the top or hills look like islands

107
Q

define emerging coastal landforms

A

landforms when sea level falls or land rises

108
Q

define raised beach

A

beaches and cliff lines elevate above sea level and expose a new storm beach, features it cliffs like wave cut platforms, CASS but are no longer eroded or affected by the sea

109
Q

define relict cliff

A

back of raised beach with a steep slip displaying evidence that they used to the eroded

110
Q

define marine platform

A

expanse of gently sloping, formerly submerged land has been exposed by uplift or fall of sea level

111
Q

define coastal management

A

response to the natural and human activities that threaten coastal environments

112
Q

aims of coastal management

A
  • defend and mitigate against the impacts of flooding
  • proceed against the effects of lsd
  • stabilise sand dunes
  • protect estuarine landscapes and ecosystem
  • protect and mitigate against the impacts of coastal erosion
113
Q

define hold the line

A

retain the existing coastline by maintaining the current defences or building new ones

114
Q

define advance the line

A

build new defences seward of the existing line

115
Q

define retreat the line

A

actively manage the rate and process by which the coast’s retreat

116
Q

define do nothing but monitor

A

let the area erode when it is not economically or environmentally viable to undertake defences

117
Q

define hard engineering and name the techniques

A

building artificial structure to reduce or stop the impacts of coastal processes
groynes, sea walls, rock armour, gabions, cliff fixing, offshore reef, barrage, revetments

118
Q

what are groynes and evaluation

A

wooden, rock or steel structures going out into sea to help trap sediment being moved by lsd
+ work with natural processes to build up the beach, not too expensive
- starve beaches of fresh sediment further up the beach, unnatural, unattractive

119
Q

what are sea walls and evaluation

A

recurved face to reflect waves back to sea and dissipate wave energy
+ effective, often have promenade to walk along
- reflect wave energy instead of absorb, instructive and unnatural, expensive

120
Q

what is rock armour and evaluation

A

large rocks at the foot of cliff or top of beach to be a permeable barrier to the sea and breaking up the wave
+ cheap, easy to construct, often used for recreation like fishing
- intrusive, rocks are imported, dangerous

121
Q

what are gabions and evaluation

A

steel wire cages filled with rocks to absorb wave energy
+ strong, flexible, cost effective
- ugly, dangerous for people and animals

122
Q

what is cliff fixing and evaluation

A

driving metal bars into the cliff face to stabilise and absorb wave power
+ simple, cost effective
- natural sediment transport disrupted, requires maintenance

123
Q

what is offshore reef and evaluation

A

partly submerged rock designed to break up waves before reaching coastline
+ effective permeable barrier, does not construct
- unappealing, navigation hazard

124
Q

what is barrage and evaluation

A

moveable flood barrier and acts as a dam
+ no pollution, reliable
- presents free access if boats, spoils view, destroys habitat, very expensive

125
Q

what are revetments and evaluation

A

concrete or wooden structures placed along a coastline to absorb wave energy
+ cost effective
- unappealing, need constant maintenance

126
Q

define soft engineering and give examples

A

natural defences that work with the environment
beach replenishment, manages retreat, dune regeneration, marsh creation, beach reprofiling, cliff regrading and drainage

127
Q

define beach replenishment/nourishment and evaluation

A

replacement of sand lost through lsd
+ wider beaches, cheap, natural
- taking material from other beaches, has to be replenished frequently, dreading may have consequences

128
Q

define managed retreat

A

abandoning current sea defences and management of exposed land

129
Q

define dune regeneration and evaluation

A

stabilisation of dunes by planting vegetation like marram grass
+ maintains natural environment, creates wildlife habitats, cheap
- time consuming, people may ignore

130
Q

define marsh creation and evaluation

A

realignment of coast by creating salt marshes to absorb wave energy
+ vegetation stabilised mudflats and helps to reduce the energy of the waves, creates new habitats
- not useful when erosion rates are high, expensive

131
Q

define beach reprofiling and evaluation

A

artificial reshaping of a beach using existing beach material
+ natural
- steep beaches are unnatural, expensive

132
Q

define cliff regrading drainage and evaluation

A

reduces angle of the cliff to help stabilise it and drainage removed water to prevent landslides
+ cheap, effective in clay or loose rock
- can dry out if too much, may cause cliff to retreat

133
Q

wallasea island managed retreat case study

A
  • 300m section of a sea wall breached to create a marine wetland
  • 115 hectares flooded
  • £7.5m government funded project to replace bird habitats, improve flood defences, and create new leisure opportunities
134
Q

define and features of integrated coastal zone management

A

aims for coordinated application of coastal strategies to meet all needs
- recognises importance of coastland the different people’s activities that need to be protected
- must be sustainable
- involve all stakeholders
- dynamic strategy- changing with environmental changes

135
Q

define and features of shoreline management plans

A

strategy on how to manage different areas between sediment cells
- either hold the line, advance the line, managed retreat, or do nothing
- all the local authorities in one sediment cell cooperate to come up with a SMP
- 22 SMPs set up in england and wales
- short medium or long term
- assess risks and provide policy agenda for protecting a coastline

136
Q

background of the Sundarbans

A
  • occupies 10,000km^2 of Southern Bangladesh and India
  • coastal zone occupying the worlds largest delta
  • created by depositor from the rivers Ganges, Brahmaputra and Meghna
  • tidal action forms deep water channels and cuts new ones
  • largest mangrove forest- shrubs or small trees that grow in coastal saline or brackish water
  • home to rare species of plants and animals like bengal tigers and Irawadi dolphins
137
Q

opportunities in the Sundarbans

A
  • natural products like timber, poles, charcoal, synthetic fibres
  • fertile land for growing crops
  • fish, crabs, honey, vinegar
  • mangrove is a natural defence against flooding by absorbing excess water
  • opportunities for development with ecotourism and power plant to provide energy
138
Q

natural challenges in sundarbans

A
  • coastal flooding
  • cyclones
  • high levels of salinity in soil
  • instability of the islands
    – accessibility and remoteness
    – human eating tigers
139
Q

human challenges in sundarbans

A
  • over exploitation of coastal resources
  • conversion of wetlands to intensive agriculture
    – destructive fishing techniques
    – lack of awareness of environmental and economic importance of the region
    – resource use conflict
    – lack of awareness of coastal issues by decisionmakers
    – lack of freshwater as it is a diverted upstream for irrigation
    – lack of employment and income opportunities
    – 42% of population below poverty
    – 2014 oil tanker southern star seven was anchored in the river and capsized
140
Q

resilience responses in sundarbans

A
  • public health engineering development increasing access to clean water and sanitation
  • better roads and bridges
  • mains electricity will be extended to more areas and solar panels in remote areas so flood warnings can reach communities
    – oxfam GB provide farming subsidies to increase food production and provide jobs
    – NGOs like USAID are offering training in sustainable methods of fishing and farming
    – Dhaka Ahsania Mission provided 500 households with training on income generation activities, 130 with sanitary products, 18 deep tube wells for safe water and 450 fuel efficient low carbon emitting oven
141
Q

mitigation responses in the sundarbans

A
  • 3500 km of embankments to prevent flooding
    – coastal management to protect existing mangroves and replant areas that have been removed
    – mitigate against extreme events like cyclones by funding for cyclone shelters and early warning systems.
    – 2012 Bangladesh government declared 3 zones of major canals in Sundarbans as dolphin sanctuaries and fishing is prohibited
  • Bangladesh ICZM in 2005 to protect population, environment, freshwater resources and improve economic
    opportunities
142
Q

adaptation responses in the Sundarbans

A
  • salt resistant varieties of rice
    – mangrove eco-Village near Pasur River – popular for dolphins.
  • building houses on stilts to protect from flooding
    – non-intensive farming practices
143
Q

opportunities for sustainable development in the Sundarbans

A

2011- a memorandum of understanding between Bangladesh and India, for conservation of Sundarabans – management of tigers and fisheries

144
Q

background and features at porlock bay

A
  • high energy coastline
  • shingle beach
  • 2 headlands of quartzite with soft mudstone- discordant coastline
  • periglacial area due to it being at the end of a glacier - lots of freeze thaw weathering and solifluction which brings shattered rock downslope
  • ## wave refraction as waves come from NW due to refracting around SW England
145
Q

management at porlock bay

A
  • groynes to protect porlock weir
  • hurlstone point is SSI- lsd material travels here
  • sea wall
  • after 1996 storm breach, local area decided to compensate farmers and allow for managed retreat and development of saltmarsh

Geography (6 decks)

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