Global Systems and Global Governance Flashcards
1
Q
Define global village
A
A flat world where economic and information can flow freely. Proposed in late 1960s by Michael McLuhan. Gradually reflected by more nations over time.
2
Q
Define global economy
A
Encompasses local and national economy which interlink a number of factors such as emergence and shift in markets, technology improvements.D
3
Q
Define globalisation
A
Process by which national economies, societies, and cultures become integrated through global network of trade communications, transport, immigration.
4
Q
What are the 4 sectors of economic activity?
A
Primary, secondary, tertiary, quaternary
5
Q
What is the primary sector of economic activity?
A
Agriculture, mining, fishing. If resources decline, typically more rural.
6
Q
What is the secondary sector of economic activity?
A
Construction worker, factory workers, machinist. Typically older industrial cities such as Sheffield and Manchester declining over time.
7
Q
What is the tertiary sector of economic activity?
A
Insurance, education, providing services. Urban area concentrated. Salaries can vary significantly.
8
Q
What is the quaternary sector of economic activity?
A
Research and development, computing. Focuses in high built up areas.
9
Q
What are the advantages of globalisation?
A
Global consciousness causing environment problems to be addressed more.
Capitalisation leading to economic growth in NEEs.
TNCs generate new jobs.
Global technologies reigniting forgotten cultures.
Global cooperation to help address problems structurally.
10
Q
What are the disadvantages of globalisation?
A
Competition leading to decline in resources.
LDCs often poorer, making escape from the poverty trap difficult.
Job security threatened as branches close.
Traditional cultures being lost, others accelerating e.g. Americanism.
Risk of diseases e.g. covid-19
11
Q
What are some examples of significant impacts on globalisation
A
Telegrams/emergence of TNCs in 19th century
British empire in 19th century
Airplanes, global tourism, wireless communications 1920s.
Capitalism/communism 1940s-1990s
The internet 1989 and the metaverse 2020-present
Mainstream Artificial Intelligence 2023
12
Q
What is the global shift and when did it happen?
A
1960s-1980s
NICs/LEDCs and RICs began to develop.
Communication Revolution during Phase 2 of globalisation.
13
Q
Why did the global shift occur?
A
Outsourcing, cheaper labour overseas.
Cost of importing declined quickly.
Main drives from Asia and RICs followed by LEDCs in the early 2000s.
14
Q
What is a core nation?
A
Typically a HIC, often distributes loans to the IMF and World Bank in return for labour and goods.
15
Q
What is a periphery nation?
A
Typically an LIC, will often receive loans and tied aid, in return for labour. Often has to pay interest on loans.
16
Q
What new type of nation has emerged in the global economy recently?
A
Semi-periphery nations - those that have some properties of both core and periphery nations e.g. China.
17
Q
What are the seven dimensions of globalisation?
A
Flow of capital
Flows of labour
Flows of products
Flows of services
Flows of information
Global marketing
Patterns of production/distribution and consumption.
18
Q
What is a flow of capital?
A
Money that moves between countries for investment, land, trade, usually by institutions that work over borders.
19
Q
How have the flows of capital changed recently?
A
$5 trillion circulates daily as of 2013.
People and businesses selling shares.
Remittance payments from flows of labour.
20
Q
How have flows of capital impacted HDEs and LDEs differently
A
Most models assume HICs have concentrated power and LDEs have been exploited of their resources and suffer from out-migration (‘brain drain’).
21
Q
What are the four different types of capital?
A
Foreign Direct Investment (FDI)
Repatriation of Profits.
Aid / Official Development Assistance (ODA).
Remittance Payments.
22
Q
What is Foreign Direct Investment (FDI)?
A
Investment mainly by TNCs, often based in one country.
Tied / Bilateral Aid.
Risen from $400 billion in 1996 to $1500 billion in 2016.
23
Q
What is the repatriation of profits?
A
TNCs investing in overseas production.
Investment usually ends up in the core nation, majority of flows go into the origin country for the TNC.
24
Q
What is aid and the Official Development Assistance (ODA)?
A
Financial support for LDEs.
Multilateral Aid - From World Bank or International Organisations.
Bilateral Aid - Cooperation between two countries for funding.
25
What are Remittance Payments?
Money that comes from migrant workers that goes back to the original country.
Accounts for $79 billion in flows in 2018.
26
What are flows of labour?
Movement of people, mostly from immigration.
Restrictions on immigration across international borders.
More people migrating from Asia to Europe / North America over the last 25 years.
27
Why do some people choose to migrate and what is the main consequence?
Conflict, unemployment, corruption.
'Brain Drain' - Loss of skilled workers in Periphery nations
28
What are the flows of products/goods?
Movement of manufactured goods from one place to another. Typically occur because of low production costs combined with high demand.
29
Define containerisation
The system of transport expected for these flows.
Often use large universal steel containers for cheaper, efficient transport.
30
Define protectionism
Policies made by government to restrict trade on goods to protect their own industries.
Reduces flows of goods globally and prevents international competition.
31
What are flows of service?
Two different types of service:
High level - Business, finance, usually concentrated in HDE cities.
Some NEEs are also financial hubs.
Low level - Consumer services, bankers, travel, tourism.
Decentralisation from HDEs to LDEs (call centres moving to India etc).
32
What are conglomerates?
Companies that report to one major company. Most TNCs work like this. Creates more connected service, increasing flow.
33
What are flows of information?
Movement / flow of people and the speed of data link / communications.
34
Give examples of technology that has improved flows of information
Global telephone networks
Mobile technology
Emails and the internet
Live media coverage (news, livestreaming)
35
Define global marketing
Process of promoting / advertising and selling products.
36
What is a brand identity?
Unique marketing strategy employed by TNCs that sets it apart from others and makes it recognisable. Often a slogan (just do it - Nike).
This can promote clone towns because the same products are on every high street.
37
What is glocalisation?
Some brands will tailor products to specific populations for religious or cultural reasons.
E.g. McDonalds not selling beef burgers in certain countries.
38
What is the international division of labour?
Highly skilled labour often found in HDEs and unskilled labour usually found in LDEs.
One exception to this are NICs - Newly Industrialised Countries, that have TNCs and their own global influence while not being a HDE.
39
What are the patterns of production globally?
Manufacturing is decentralised from HDEs to LDEs over the last forty years. Because of:
Lower land costs
Deindustrialisation of HDEs
40
What are patterns of consumption globally?
Main demand still in HDEs. NICs are increasing demand to other areas of the world as they consume more affluent goods. Forecasts show a shift in demand from West to East as Asian countries develop.
41
What are the six key factors in globalisation?
Communication systems
Financial systems
Transport systems
Security systems
Management systems
Information systems
Trade agreements
42
How have communication systems contributed to globalisation?
Almost no barriers to data sharing.
Developments to communications have accelerated with the Internet in 1989 and mobile phones, especially in LDEs.
Potential for AI to contribute further after it went mainstream in 2023.
43
How have financial systems contributed to globalisation?
Increasing financial integrations.
Loss of deregulation to move money across borders.
However, deregulation can make markets volatile and vulnerable (2008 crash).
44
Give ways that transport systems have contributed to global systems
More efficient transport
Larger aircraft
Low cost/budget airlines
Universal containers (containerisation)
Distribution efficiency
High speed rail
Suez Canal (10% of global annual trade)
45
How have security systems contributed to globailsation?
National borders being relaxed, imposing risks.
International terrorism, requires anti-terrorist groups and monitoring.
Safety standards for food imports.
Biosecurity for new diseases.
Data breaches and cybercrime
46
Give some examples of management and information systems
Global integrated companies investing.
Large production plants.
Global marketing and distribution.
Increased quaternary sector.
47
What are trade agreements?
Formal agreement by two or more countries to remove barriers.
Not always formal agreements but there is interest in cooperation.
48
Give the names of four trade blocs and their scale
US Mexico Canada Agreement (Major).
Pacific Alliance (Major)
Organisation of Petroleum Exporting Countries (OPEC)
MERCOSUR (Major)
European Free Trade Association (STG Developed)
Caribbean Community (STG Developing)
South African Development Community (STG Developing)
South Asian Free Trade Area (STG Developing)
European Union (Major)
Association of South East Asia Nations (Major)
Group 77 + China
49
What are the four stages of trade agreements?
Free Trade Areas
Custom Unions
Common Market
Economic Union
50
What is free trade area?
An area where trade barriers between members are eliminated and tariffs are kept against external nations.
51
What is a common market?
Same as customs union, but also the agreement for free flow of goods, services and labour e.g. MERCOSUR
52
What is an economic union?
Same as common market but there is a common currency and taxes, as well as a set of economic policies. Sometimes there are laws and other policies as well, e.g. EU has euros
53
What are three advantages of being in an economic union?
Fair exchange rates and common currency simplifying transactions.
Faster transfers for technology.
International status and competition.
Pooling of resources for extreme events.
54
What are three disadvantages of being in an economic union?
Some countries become dependant on others.
Exploitation of resources (UK fishing waters for example).
Competition for jobs.
Pressure to adopt legislation.
Centralised decisions.
54
What are the social interactions to interdependence?
Health: World Health Organisation.
Education
Culture
55
How does health impact on social interdependence?
International institutions took charge of COVID pandemic. Countries providing aid to those who couldn't afford the costs.
More confidence internationally form governments and improved relations. But periphery nations still missed out.
56
How does education impact on social interdependence?
Foreign exchange programs have increased, more students travelling to universities overseas.
Beneficial for involved universities and improved political relations, but does not benefit everyone at a global scale.
57
How does culture impact on social interdependence?
Social ties have been strengthened. For instance, a large Indian population has settled in the UK.
Political relations have improved and new culture improve mutual respect and tolerance, but there is often a loss of cultures long-term (americanism).
58
What are the economic interactions to interdependence?
Trade
Technology
Employment
Labour flows
TNCs and investment
Supply chains
Industrialisation
59
How does trade impact on economic interdependence?
Nations take part in international trade, with reliance on other countries to supply demands.
Countries can distribute goods and receive profits, but this has led to exploitation of LICs and lack of growth in these countries.
60
How does technology impact on economic interdependence?
Competition and cooperation improves, increasing quality of products and services.
Technology is also affordable but the gap is growing between HDEs and LDEs because of lack of funding.
61
How does employment impact on economic interdependence?
Jobs are being generated in new places, relocating workers.
NICs are able to get more secondary infrastructure, but there are job losses in MEDCs and HDEs in the secondary industry.
62
How do labour flows impact on economic interdependence?
International migrants make up 20% of EU countries, Philippines relies on remittance payments.
Remittance payments can benefit the LDE and NICs can encourage the multiplier effect, but HDEs are suffering from increased national unemployment.
63
How do TNCs impact on economic interdependence?
TNCs operate in several countries and invest in LICs buying equipment and technology.
Encourages flow of investment into LICs but outsources local companies if they aren't caught up.
64
How do supply chains impact on economic interdependence?
Different components manufactured from different countries and distributed globally.
Manufactures benefit from lower land costs and labour, however if one position in the chain stops, it can completely stop the flow.
65
How does industrialisation impact on economic interdependence?
BRIC and MINT countries industrialise, while the EU and America deindustrialise.
Encourages development in NICs, and HDEs can focus on quaternary jobs, but there is often large unemployment after deindustrialisation.
66
What are the environmental interactions to interdependence?
Global commons
Global climate change
Unsustainable practices
67
How do global commons impact on environmental interdependence?
Legislation on four main areas: oceans, atmosphere, space, and Antarctica.
Countries that don't have a share can still use the resources, however oceans don't benefit landlocked countries / other loopholes etc.
68
How does global climate change impact on environmental interdependence?
Concerns have led to international summits and formation of groups such as UNFCCC and UNEP.
HDEs can use money and resources to reduce their emissions, but LDEs are often hit hardest by the changes, despite not necessarily causing them.
69
How do unsustainable practices impact on environmental interdependence?
Pollution and deforestation threaten biodiversity globally.
Companies use resources to economically profit but all stakeholders are likely to suffer in the long term (damage to carbon sinks / tipping points).
70
What are the political interactions to interdependence?
International Monetary Fund and World Bank
World Trade Organisation
United Nations
Security and Stability
World Peace
71
How do the International Monetary Fund and World Bank impact on political interdependence?
Global systems are supported by IGOs and IMF facilities capital flows.
Stakeholders benefit because money is distributed freely and fairly but interest rates can increase taxes on periphery countries
72
How does the World Trade Organisation impact on political interdependence?
Overseeing of international trade and establishing free trade.
Increases flows of goods between NICs and high demanding countries. But has led to large deindustrialisation.
73
How does security and stability impact on political interdependence?
Improved political stability allows governments to work together.
Increased cooperation between nations but they do not necessarily have the same goals.
74
How does World Peace impact on political interdependence?
Some claim wars are less likely presently. Thomas Freidman created the theory that every country with a McDonalds wouldn't wage a war (disproven).
All stakeholders benefit from no wars, however some nations may see land as rightfully theirs but can't fight back to take it (tension).
75
What are the issues associated with flows of money?
Dependencies on foreign aid
Exploitation and threats to stop all investment by TNCs
Loans have to be repaid, often with interest.
76
What are the issues associated with flows of ideas?
Profits retained instead of reinvested, stopping growth.
Social injustice and environmental degradation in LDEs.
May not benefit LDEs and in some cases NICs/NEEs.
77
What are the issues associated with flows of technology?
Countries with better technology can make products more cheaply.
Data access gap (97% of the Netherlands has accessed, compared to only 20% for Myanmar).
Repressive governments can receive weapons to shut down protests / uprisings.
78
What are the issues associated with flows of political power?
Corruption.
Some countries will have a government installed by another, particularly if the country is following bilateral aid.
79
Define a geopolitical event
Events that are caused by political decisions but are influenced by geographical factors. Multiple countries are usually involved.
80
Give some examples of geopolitical events in recent history
Brexit
Russia and Ukraine
China's foreign policies (Group 77)
Global warming
The IMF
81
Why has China invested into Africa?
Africa nations now support China when there are geopolitical decisions, giving China more control.
Africa is now able to develop.
Belt and Road Initiatives. Across much of Europe and Africa.
Allows for expanding military presence in Africa, particularly near the Suez Canal.
82
What are the different influences on trade?
Level of free trade
Regional trade agreements (RTAs)
Economic shocks/crises/pandemics/wars
Comparative advantages
Proximity
Agglomerations
Market size and strength
Geopolitical relationships.
83
How does level of free trade influence trade?
WTO introducing framework to encourage countries to reduce protectionist barriers, average global volume of trade increased.
84
How do regional trade agreements influence trade?
Global trade framework lowers barriers.
EU/USMCA have lower average tariffs between internal members.
85
How do economic shocks and other events influence trade?
After the 2008 crash, multilateral tariffs are harder to achieve, fluctuations in international trade flows.
Recessions caused by covid leading to 'slowbalisation'
86
How does comparative advantage influence trade?
Countries can choose to specialise in goods that they can afford to make the cheapest to increase their profits.
87
How does proximity influence trade?
Countries are more likely to trade with neighbours for economic and cultural reasons. Intraregional trade is still much greater in most major continents.
88
Define agglomerations and how does it influence trade?
Companies cluster in specific areas to have all skilled workers in one specific area. Lower costs for businesses.
89
How does the United Nations impact on political interdependence?
Leading organisations for international government.
There is more integration for globalisation but a few countries are not in the UN and cannot benefit.
90
What are the issues associated with flows of people?
'Brain Drain' from skilled workers leaving.
Conflict - low skilled migrants working for less, wages decreased.
Migrants made to work in dangerous conditions (Qatar stadiums for the World Cup in 2022 cost thousands of lives).
91
What allows for flows of ideas?
Privatisation
Deregulation
Free trade
Multiculturalism
92
How does market size and strength influence trade?
Exporters are more likely to travel to growing markets, causing multiplier effect. G7 (seven largest economies) represent 58% of global net worth.
93
What countries are in the G7?
Canada, France, Germany, Italy, Japan, UK, US
94
How do geopolitical relationships influence trade?
Alliances between countries are important to encourage cooperation. Conflict often leads to large sanctions from major trade groups.
95
What are some issues with international trade?
Large trading blocs hold monopoly over smaller ones or developing markets.
Large trading blocs can also have big impacts if they decide to sanction another. 'slowbalisation'
Some countries cannot afford to grow their markets.
96
What was the value of goods in 2018 compared to 2013. Why is this a positive/negative thing?
2018 - $19.48 trillion ($500 billion more than 2013). This means that international trade is stalling.
97
What are the trends in FDI investment?
2019 - $1.36 trillion
Developing countries receiving twice the FDI to developed.
Largest investors are currently China, Japan, and France.
98
How has the USA's trading patterns changed? (HDE)
More protectionist, especially after Donald Trump's first election in 2016.
Lots of countries depend on bilateral aid from the USA.
99
What are the trading patterns for the EU? (HDE)
27 member states that trade freely, but tariffs from products outside of this area can be expensive.
65% of Eu trade is intraregional, but there are deals with MERCOSUR and USMCA.
100
What are the trading patterns for China? (EE)
Rapid growth in the last 30 years.
Patterns of import of raw materials and exporting processed steels.
Trade War with the USA, causing high tariffs for both nation's goods.
101
What is free trade?
Policies that are made to reduce tariffs on international trade.
World Trade Organisation, World Bank, and IMF are main groups involved.
TNCs and power businesses can benefit, but this often sacrifices on environmental sustainability and can be unjust.
102
What is fair trade?
Policies to offer a minimum wage to farmers.
Groups of farmers form cooperatives which can communicate and catch out businesses.
1210 fairtrade organisations in 74 countries, benefitting 6 million.
FAIRTRADE PREMIUM - a sum of money to allow areas to develop.
Successful scheme - 30000 products in 125 countries.
103
What are causes of variation in access to markets?
Tariffs
Quotas
Regulations
Protectionism
104
What are the impacts of differential market access socially?
Increasing debt to a nation.
Increases to unemployment and poverty.
Limited range of imported goods.
Food/energy insecurities.
Migrations.
105
What are the LDEs?
A group of countries agreed on by the UN General Assembly in 1971 that would receive privileged access to markets to develop.
106
What is a TNC (Transnational Corporation)?
A business that has factories and offices across several countries.
They often choose where to setup with lower wages and taxes as well as a large labour pool.
107
How do TNCs often spatially organise themselves?
Hierarchal models, top down decisions.
Plans for change often sudden, factories close down and relocated to areas that have more relaxed laws if other areas tighten up.
108
Give reasons why TNCs can grow very quickly.
Wage demands in LICs lower, less costs.
Big businesses buy smaller chains to increase monopoly.
Workforces are flexible and can travel.
Environmental control are almost non-existent.
Containerisation standardised goods transport.
Governments give incentives and tax breaks.
Brownfield sites are cheaper to build on.
109
What is the general pattern of trade TNCs promote?
Typically having a HQ in the country of origin that most of the profits go back to.
Biggest TNCs have operations in almost every country.
110
Give some strategies that TNCs use to grow
Glocalisation - changing products to suit the culture of the country.
Sports advertising - TNCs ask famous athletes and players to wear their products.
111
What are drawbacks of TNCs for the host country?
Low skilled jobs still mainly in LDEs.
Managerial positions not in the country.
Profits sent back to origin country.
Investment short term and immediately stops if the TNC pulls out.
112
What are the drawbacks for the TNCs origin country?
Workforce may need to relocate at short notice.
Business tax not always paid due to loopholes.
Quick return investment can cause instability.
113
What are economic positives of globalisation for TNCs?
- Lower cost for production.
- Cheaper/lower tariffs.
- Emerging Economies causing large increases in goods.
114
What are economic negatives of globalisation for TNCs?
- Poor working conditions.
- Economic leakage.
- Deindustrialisation and outsourcing.
115
What are political positives of globalisation for TNCs?
- Can persuade governments to lower taxes and tariffs.
- More taxes paid to governments when people are working, allowing infrastructure to develop.
116
What are political negatives of globalisation for TNCs?
- Some TNCs have more GDP than entire nations (more power).
- Risk of neo-colonialism and exploitation.
117
What are social positives of globalisation for TNCs?
- Improved transport/infrastructure.
- Consumer goods are cheaper.
- Specialisation leads to higher quality goods.
118
What are social negatives of globalisations for TNCs?
- Conscience for work-life balance.
- Derelict factories and buildings promote deprivation and poverty.
- Exploitations of flows of people.
119
What are environmental positives of globalisation for TNCs?
- Raw materials can be sourced for low costs.
- Increasing environmental awareness.
- COP28 - Largest delegates in history.
120
What are environmental negatives of globalisation for TNCs?
- Exploitation of resources.
- Environmental damage across the host country, TNC, and origin country.
121
What are two positives of the artificial food industry?
- Additives increase longevity of food.
- Genetically Modified crops could help with food security.
122
What are two negatives of the artificial food industry?
- Some people are against GM crops as don't know if there are any unknown health effects.
- TNCs earn lots of money from processed foods, decreasing the overall health.
123
What are two negatives of palm oil production?
- Massive areas of rainforests cleared for the plantations.
- People cleared off the land.
- 75% of rainforests deforested in Malaysia.
124
What are two positives of palm oil?
- Green Palm Certificates given to businesses who meet standards.
- RSPO encouraging environmental sustainability.
125
Define global governance
The way that the world is managed.
126
Why is global governance hard to define?
- It's always changing, TNCs continue to grow in power in this changing economic world.
127
Define a global law
An enforceable law that, if broken, the person will face consequences for it. It is legally binding.
128
Define a global norm
Not an enforceable law but should still be followed (respected socially within a community).
129
What is the United Nations?
An international organisation formed in 1945 made up of 193 members.
130
What are the three key aims of the United Nations?
- International peace.
- Security and stability.
- Cooperation.
131
What is the main purpose of the UN General Assembly?
- Developing relations and cooperation.
- Settling disputes over international law.
132
What is an advantage and a disadvantage of the UN General Assembly?
+ Works to uphold international agreements.
- Relies on funding from developed nations.
133
What is the main purpose of the UN Security Council?
Maintain world peace and security.
134
What is an advantage and disadvantage of the UN Security Council?
+ Facilitated nuclear disarmament.
+ Improved geopolitical stability.
- Doesn't have solutions for major conflicts.
- Often disagreements amongst permanent members.
135
What is the main purpose of the World Health Organisation (WHO)?
Manage international public health and monitor outbreaks (ebola, covid-19).
136
What is an advantage and disadvantage of the World Health Organisation?
+ Eradicated smallpox and almost all of polio.
- Criticised for not allowing all countries fair access to covid-19 vaccines.
137
What is the main purpose of the World Trade Organisation (WTO)?
Cut trade barriers, quotas, and tariffs. Allows for free trade between countries.
138
What is an advantage and disadvantage of the World Trade Organisation?
+ Increased flows of goods and labour worldwide.
- Often criticised for not always considering all stakeholders.
139
What are some positives of the IMF?
- Offers financial and technical assistance to members.
- Provides 'bail out' loans.
140
What are some negatives of IMF?
- Loans only stabilise trade, nothing else.
- Loans have to be paid back, and usually have interest = more expensive.
141
What are some positives of World Bank?
- Promotes reduction of poverty by providing assistance.
- Special interest free loans to some countries.
142
What is a bilateral agreement?
Where one country gives aid to another, usually under a set of agreements.
143
What is a multilateral agreement?
Where a country receives aid from multiple countries, usually through agencies like the World Bank.
144
What is a non-governmental organisation (NGO)?
Non profit organisations.
145
What are some examples of NGOs?
- Oxfam
- Water Aid
- WWF
- Red Cross
- Save The Children
146
What are the four roles of NGOs?
Protect - initial relief/aid
Prevent - reduce vulnerability
Promote - increase chances/opportunities.
Transform - Re-address social, political, and economic aspects.
147
What is an example for a key issue for sustainable development and global governance?
Climate change.
148
What are some possible impacts of anthropogenic induced climate change?
- Extinction of vulnerable species.
- Increased extreme weather events.
- Sea level rise of 70-120cm by 2100.
- Increased desertification.
149
Why is climate change difficult to address in global governance?
- Making decisions are unlikely to benefit every country.
- Restrictions and laws that are legally binding are difficult to pass
150
How has Agenda 21 tried to address climate change?
- NGOs and civil societies have more say in talks.
HOWEVER
- Not legally binding, so can opt out.
- It's 32 years old so it is slightly outdated.
151
How has Greta Thunberg addressed climate change?
- Strike for Climate, students walk out of lessons.
- Increased public awareness for climate change.
- She can't change climate laws on her own however.
152
What is a global common?
A newly discovered area with resources that other countries want to have. This can lead to conflict. Not controlled by a single nation.
153
What are the four main global commons?
- Antarctica.
- The High Seas.
- The Atmosphere
- Outer Space.
154
What is 'The Tragedy of the Commons'?
- Increased vulnerability of global commons.
- People considering short term interests but not long term impacts.
155
What is the predicted population by 2100?
11 billion.
156
What laws are protecting each global commons?
The High Seas - The UN Convention on the Law of the Sea (UNCLOS).
The Atmosphere - The UN Convention on Climate Change (UNFCCC) and the Paris Agreement.
Antarctica - Antarctic Treaty System (ATS).
Outer Space - Outer Space Treaty (1967)
