global ethical philosophies

Question 1

SPACE

Answer 1

Socrates
Plato
Aristotle
Confucius
Epicurus

Question 2

ATNRB

Answer 2

Augustine of Hippo
Thomas Aquinas
Niccolò Machiavelli
René Descartes
Baruch Spinoza

Question 2

ZCSEM

Answer 2

Zeno of Citium (founder of Stoicism)
Cicero
Seneca
Epictetus
Marcus Aurelius

Question 2

TJDIJ

Answer 2

Thomas Hobbes
John Locke
David Hume
Immanuel Kant
Jean-Jacques Rousseau

Question 3

KFMJW

Answer 3

Karl Marx
Friedrich Engels
Max Weber
John Dewey
William James

Question 3

HASJM

Answer 3

Henry Sidgwick
G. E. M. Anscombe
Simone de Beauvoir
Jean-Paul Sartre
Martin Heidegger

Question 3

JJASF

Answer 3

Jeremy Bentham
John Stuart Mill
Arthur Schopenhauer
Søren Kierkegaard
Friedrich Nietzsche

Question 4

RMRSA

Answer 4

Rudolf Steiner
Mahatma Gandhi
Rabindranath Tagore
Sri Aurobindo
Alasdair MacIntyre

Question 5

ESHAM

Answer 5

Emmanuel Levinas
Simone Weil
Hannah Arendt
Albert Camus
Martin Buber

Question 6

DKJJM

Answer 6

Dietrich Bonhoeffer
Karl Popper
Jürgen Habermas
Jacques Derrida
Michel Foucault

Question 7

Socrates:
SVI EK

Answer 7

Socratic Method: A form of cooperative argumentative dialogue to stimulate critical thinking and illuminate ideas.
Virtue Ethics: Emphasizes moral character and virtues like courage, wisdom, and justice.
Intellectual Virtue: The cultivation of knowledge and wisdom through questioning and self-reflection.
Ethical Eudaimonism: The belief that living a virtuous life leads to human flourishing and happiness.
Know Thyself: The idea that self-awareness and introspection are fundamental to ethical development.

Question 7

Plato:
TATPP

Answer 7

Theory of Forms: The belief in an abstract realm of ideal Forms that represent the true nature of reality.
Allegory of the Cave: Metaphorically describes the journey from ignorance to enlightenment through philosophical education.
Tripartite Soul: Describes the soul as consisting of reason, spirit, and appetite, each with its own virtues and vices.
Philosopher-King: The concept of a just ruler who possesses wisdom, knowledge, and moral integrity.
Platonic Love: A non-sexual, idealized form of love based on admiration and spiritual connection.

Question 7

Aristotle
GVETD

Answer 7

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Golden Mean: Advocates finding the middle ground between extremes of behavior to achieve moral virtue.
Virtue Ethics: Focuses on developing virtuous character traits through habituation and practice.
Eudaimonia: The highest human good, achieved through the cultivation of virtue and rational activity.
Teleology: The study of purpose or final causes, emphasizing the inherent goals and functions of entities.
Doctrine of the Mean: Balancing virtue between deficiency and excess, leading to ethical excellence.

Question 8

Confucius:
RLF RJ

Answer 8

Ren (Humaneness): The virtue of compassion, benevolence, and kindness towards others.
Li (Ritual): Emphasizes proper conduct, manners, and etiquette as a means of fostering harmony in society.
Filial Piety: The ethical obligation of respect and loyalty towards one’s parents and ancestors.
Rectification of Names: Advocates using language accurately and truthfully to promote social order and morality.
Junzi (Gentleman): An ideal ethical role model characterized by moral integrity, wisdom, and self-cultivation.

Question 9

Epicurus:
HATFP

Answer 9

Hedonism: Defines pleasure as the highest good and ultimate goal of life, emphasizing tranquility and absence of pain.
Ataraxia: The state of serene tranquility and freedom from disturbance, sought after as the highest pleasure.
Tetrapharmakos: The Four-fold Remedy, comprising maxims for living a happy life free from anxiety and fear.
Friendship: Valued as a source of pleasure, support, and companionship in Epicurean philosophy.
Principle of Minimalism: Encourages living a simple, frugal life focused on satisfying basic needs and minimizing desires.

Question 9

Zeno of Citium (founder of Stoicism):
SDSAI

Answer 9

Stoic Virtue: Emphasizes living in accordance with nature, cultivating wisdom, courage, justice, and self-discipline.
Dichotomy of Control: Focuses on distinguishing between things within our control (our thoughts and actions) and those outside our control (external events).
Stoic Resilience: Advocates accepting adversity with equanimity and using rationality to overcome challenges.
Amor Fati: The love of fate, accepting the events of life, whether positive or negative, as necessary and part of the natural order.
Indifference to Indifferent Things: Encourages indifference to external goods or adversities, focusing instead on internal virtues

Question 10

Cicero:
NDSF

Answer 10

Natural Law: Argues for the existence of universal moral principles derived from nature and accessible to reason.
Duties (Officia): Identifies four types of duties: duties to oneself, to family, to society, and to humanity.
Stoic Ethics: Draws heavily from Stoic philosophy, particularly the emphasis on virtue, reason, and self-control.
Friendship (Amicitia): Celebrates the value of friendship as essential to a virtuous and fulfilling life.

Question 11

Seneca:
SSVST

Answer 11

Stoic Ethics: Focuses on the pursuit of virtue, self-mastery, and inner tranquility in the face of external adversity.
Seneca’s Paradox: Argues that one can be happy even in the midst of suffering by cultivating inner virtues and resilience.
Virtue as the Sole Good: Proposes that true happiness comes from living virtuously, regardless of external circumstances.
Stoic Cosmopolitanism: Advocates for a sense of global citizenship and concern for the welfare of all humanity.
Tranquility (Ataraxia): Pursues inner peace and calmness through detachment from external desires and outcomes.

Question 12

Marcus Aurelius
SMIME

Answer 12

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Stoic Duty: Emphasizes the ethical obligation to fulfill one’s roles and responsibilities with wisdom, virtue, and integrity.
Meditations: Marcus Aurelius’ personal reflections on Stoic philosophy, focusing on self-improvement, acceptance, and virtue.
Stoic Impartiality: Advocates treating all people with fairness, respect, and compassion, regardless of their status or affiliation.
Stoic Mindfulness: Encourages present-moment awareness, self-examination, and reflection as means of cultivating wisdom and virtue.
Stoic Equanimity: Strives for inner tranquility and calmness, even in the face of adversity, uncertainty, and external chaos.

Question 13

Epictetus:DDARF

Answer 13

Dichotomy of Control: Similar to Zeno’s teaching, emphasizes focusing only on what is within one’s control: thoughts and actions.
Stoic Discipline of Assent: Advises exercising control over one’s judgments and reactions to external events.
Stoic Acceptance: Encourages accepting events with equanimity and recognizing the power of reasoned choice in responding to them.
Stoic Resilience: Teaches techniques for enduring hardship, adversity, and pain with fortitude and dignity.
Freedom (Apatheia): Defines freedom as inner tranquility and freedom from the passions and desires that disturb the soul.

Question 14

Augustine of Hippo:ODLJC

Answer 14

Original Sin: Discusses the concept of original sin, the inherited sinful nature of humanity from Adam and Eve’s disobedience.
Divine Command Theory: Argues that moral principles are rooted in God’s commands and are discerned through revelation.
Love and Will: Explores the relationship between love and will, emphasizing the role of love in shaping moral actions.
Just War Theory: Develops principles for determining the conditions under which war can be morally justified.
The City of God: Expounds on the contrast between the City of God (the spiritual realm) and the City of Man (the earthly realm).

Question 15

Thomas Aquinas:NSVPJ

Answer 15

Natural Law Theory: Propounds the idea that moral principles are inherent in nature and discoverable through reason.
Summa Theologica: Thomas Aquinas’ comprehensive work on theology and philosophy, covering various aspects of ethics and metaphysics.
Virtue Ethics: Emphasizes the cultivation of moral virtues as essential for leading a virtuous and flourishing life.
Principle of Double Effect: Provides criteria for assessing the morality of an action when it produces both good and bad effects.
Just War Theory: Expounds on the conditions that must be met for a war to be considered morally just

Question 16

John Locke:NTSCLT

Answer 16

Natural Rights: Asserts that individuals have inherent rights to life, liberty, and property, which precede and constrain government authority.
Tabula Rasa: Contends that the mind at birth is a blank slate (tabula rasa) upon which experience writes, shaping individual identity.
Social Contract Theory: Posits that political authority arises from a voluntary agreement among individuals to form a government for mutual protection.
Limited Government: Advocates for a government with defined powers and duties, accountable to the people and bound by the rule of law.
Toleration: Argues for religious toleration and freedom of conscience, advocating for a separation of church and state.

Question 17

David HumeEMISI

Answer 17

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Empiricism: Emphasizes the role of sensory experience as the foundation of human knowledge, rejecting innate ideas and metaphysical speculation.
Moral Sentimentalism: Proposes that moral judgments are rooted in human sentiments and emotions, rather than reason or divine command.
Is-Ought Problem: Criticizes attempts to derive normative ethical statements (ought) from descriptive statements about the world (is).
Skepticism: Challenges the certainty of human knowledge, particularly in metaphysical and religious domains, advocating for a moderate skepticism.
Induction: Examines the problem of induction, questioning the justification for inductive reasoning and the uniformity of nature.

Question 18

Immanuel Kant:CDAKE

Answer 18

Categorical Imperative: Presents the principle of moral duty, requiring actions to be performed out of respect for universal moral law.
Deontological Ethics: Advocates for ethical theories based on duty and obligation, rather than consequences or character.
Autonomy: Emphasizes the moral agency and rational autonomy of individuals as the basis for moral decision-making.
Kingdom of Ends: Describes a hypothetical community of rational beings governed by moral principles, where each person is treated as an end in themselves.
Enlightenment: Celebrates the age of reason and intellectual freedom, urging individuals to think for themselves and challenge authority.

Question 19

Jean-Jacques Rousseau:SGSEN

Answer 19

Social Contract Theory: Explores the idea of a social contract as the basis for legitimate political authority and the establishment of civil society.
General Will: Discusses the collective will of the people, which reflects the common good and is distinct from individual or factional interests.
State of Nature: Contemplates the hypothetical condition of humanity before the emergence of society and government, characterized by freedom and equality.
Education: Emphasizes the importance of education in cultivating virtuous citizens and fostering moral development and social cohesion.
Noble Savage: Idealizes the primitive state of humanity as inherently good and virtuous, contrasting with the corrupting influence of civilization.

Question 20

Jeremy Bentham:UHFPP

Answer 20

Utilitarianism: Advocates for the principle of utility, which holds that actions are morally right if they produce the greatest happiness for the greatest number of people.
Hedonistic Calculus: Introduces a method for calculating the pleasure and pain generated by actions, considering factors such as intensity, duration, certainty, and extent.
Felicific Calculus: Proposes a quantitative approach to assessing the utility of actions, aiming to maximize pleasure and minimize pain in society.
Principle of Utility: Asserts that the morality of actions should be judged based on their utility in promoting happiness and reducing suffering.
Panopticon: Designs a model prison where inmates are under constant surveillance, illustrating Bentham’s interest in social control and reform.

Question 21

John Stuart Mill:HULRW

Answer 21

Harm Principle: Argues that the only justification for limiting individual liberty is to prevent harm to others, allowing individuals the maximum freedom compatible with the equal liberty of others.
Utilitarianism: Expands on Bentham’s utilitarianism, distinguishing between higher and lower pleasures and emphasizing qualitative aspects of happiness.
Liberty: Advocates for individual freedom of thought, expression, and action, while recognizing the importance of social and moral constraints.
Representative Government: Discusses the principles of democratic governance and the role of elected representatives in promoting the common good.
Women’s Rights: Supports gender equality and women’s suffrage, arguing for the expansion of civil and political rights to all individuals.

Question 22

Arthur Schopenhauer:PWCAM

Answer 22

Pessimism: Holds that life is filled with suffering and dissatisfaction, and that true happiness can only be found by renouncing desires and embracing inner peace.
Will to Live: Identifies the primal force driving all human actions and desires, which ultimately leads to suffering and unhappiness.
Compassion: Emphasizes the importance of empathy and altruism in mitigating suffering and fostering a sense of interconnectedness with others.
Aesthetic Theory: Explores the role of art and beauty as a means of transcending the suffering of existence and accessing moments of profound insight and tranquility.
Metaphysics: Develops a metaphysical system grounded in the primacy of the will and the illusory nature of the physical world, drawing on Eastern philosophies such as Hinduism and Buddhism.

Question 23

Søren Kierkegaard:ELAKI

Answer 23

Existentialism: Propounds the idea that existence precedes essence, emphasizing individual freedom, responsibility, and the search for meaning in an absurd world.
Leap of Faith: Advocates for a radical commitment to faith in the absence of objective evidence, as a means of encountering the divine and achieving authentic existence.
Anxiety: Discusses the existential angst inherent in human existence, arising from the freedom to choose and the uncertainty of the future.
Knight of Faith: Describes the ideal individual who embraces the paradoxes of existence and lives in accordance with their deepest beliefs, transcending the limitations of reason.
Irony: Utilizes irony as a rhetorical device to provoke critical self-reflection and challenge conventional wisdom, revealing the limitations of human understanding.

Question 24

Friedrich Nietzsche:WEUSP

Answer 24

Will to Power: Identifies the driving force behind human behavior as the desire for power and self-affirmation, transcending traditional notions of good and evil.
Eternal Recurrence: Proposes the idea that existence is an endless cycle of recurrence, challenging individuals to affirm their lives and choices in the face of eternal repetition.
Übermensch (Overman): Envisions a new type of human being who transcends conventional morality and embraces their own values, free from the constraints of societal norms.
Slave Morality vs. Master Morality: Critiques traditional morality as the product of a slave mentality, advocating for a revaluation of values based on strength, creativity, and self-expression.
Perspectivism: Argues that truth is subjective and relative to individual perspectives, rejecting the idea of objective reality and advocating for multiple interpretations of the world

Question 25

Henry Sidgwick:UDMUM

Answer 25

Utilitarianism: Expands on the utilitarian principles of Jeremy Bentham and John Stuart Mill, emphasizing the maximization of overall happiness as the basis for ethical decision-making.
Dualism of Practical Reason: Introduces the concept that ethical decision-making involves a conflict between egoistic and altruistic motives, requiring rational deliberation to reconcile competing interests.
Method of Utilitarianism: Discusses various methods for calculating utility and resolving ethical dilemmas, including hedonistic calculus and the consideration of long-term consequences.
Universal Benevolence: Advocates for the cultivation of a universal benevolence that extends moral consideration to all sentient beings, regardless of personal attachments or affiliations.
Morality and Religion: Examines the relationship between morality and religious belief, exploring the role of religion in promoting ethical behavior and moral motivation.

Question 26

G. E. M. Anscombe:VIMNA

Answer 26

Virtue Ethics: Revives interest in Aristotelian virtue ethics, emphasizing the importance of character traits, moral virtues, and practical wisdom in ethical decision-making.
Intention and Consequence: Distinguishes between intentional actions and their foreseeable consequences, critiquing consequentialist approaches to ethics that prioritize outcomes over intentions.
Modern Moral Philosophy: Criticizes the dominant ethical theories of her time, including utilitarianism and Kantian deontology, for their failure to provide a satisfactory account of moral obligation.
Natural Law Ethics: Explores the concept of natural law as a basis for moral reasoning, arguing that ethical principles are grounded in the inherent nature of human beings and the natural order.
Authority and Obedience: Reflects on the moral obligations of individuals in relation to authority figures and social institutions, considering the limits of obedience in the face of unjust laws or commands.

Question 27

Jean-Paul SartreERBAE

Answer 27

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Existentialism: Propounds the idea that existence precedes essence, emphasizing individual freedom, responsibility, and the pursuit of authenticity in a world devoid of inherent meaning.
Radical Freedom: Asserts that human beings are condemned to be free, burdened with the responsibility of creating their own values and determining the course of their lives.
Bad Faith: Describes the self-deceptive attempt to evade one’s freedom and responsibility by adopting fixed roles or embracing false values, leading to inauthenticity and self-alienation.
Authenticity: Encourages individuals to embrace their existential freedom and confront the inherent ambiguity of existence, striving to live authentically by making meaningful choices.
Existential Psychoanalysis: Explores the psychological dimensions of existentialism, analyzing the ways in which unconscious desires and social conditioning influence human behavior and identity.

Question 27

Karl Marx:HCCLC

Answer 27

Historical Materialism: Presents a materialist interpretation of history, asserting that the economic structure of society determines the social and political superstructure, leading to class struggle and historical change.
Critique of Capitalism: Criticizes capitalism for its inherent contradictions, exploitation of labor, and alienation of the worker from the products of their labor, advocating for its eventual overthrow.
Class Conflict: Emphasizes the centrality of class conflict in driving historical progress, envisioning a revolutionary struggle between the proletariat and the bourgeoisie that will result in the establishment of communism.
Labor Theory of Value: Propounds the labor theory of value, which posits that the value of commodities is derived from the socially necessary labor time required for their production, challenging capitalist notions of profit and exchange.
Communism: Envisions a classless, stateless society based on common ownership of the means of production and the principle of “from each according to his ability, to each according to his needs.”

Question 27

Martin Heidegger:BHCAT

Answer 27

Being and Time: Introduces the concept of Dasein (Being-there) as the fundamental mode of human existence, exploring the ontological structures of temporality, mortality, and authenticity.
Hermeneutics of Existence: Advocates for a hermeneutic approach to understanding human existence, emphasizing the interpretative nature of human experience and the search for meaning.
Care (Sorge): Identifies care as the primordial mode of Being-in-the-world, encompassing both concern for oneself and solicitude for others, and shaping human existence in its totality.
Authenticity and Inauthenticity: Distinguishes between authentic and inauthentic modes of existence, with authenticity characterized by an openness to the call of conscience and a willingness to confront the finitude of existence.
Technology and Alienation: Critiques modern technology as a mode of enframing (Gestell) that obscures the true nature of Being and leads to a forgetfulness of Being, resulting in alienation and estrangement from the world.

Question 28

Simone de Beauvoir:ESEOE

Answer 28

Existential Feminism: Applies existentialist principles to the analysis of gender relations and women’s oppression, highlighting the existential freedom and agency of women in defining their own existence.
The Second Sex: Explores the social construction of femininity and the historical subjugation of women, arguing for the liberation of women from patriarchal norms and stereotypes.
Ethics of Ambiguity: Proposes an ethics grounded in the acceptance of ambiguity and uncertainty, advocating for individuals to embrace their freedom and responsibility in creating meaningful lives.
Otherness and Recognition: Examines the dynamics of intersubjectivity and mutual recognition, emphasizing the ethical importance of acknowledging the humanity and agency of others.
The Ethics of Care: Develops a feminist ethic of care centered on empathy, relationality, and attentiveness to the needs of others, challenging traditional ethical theories based on abstract principles.

Question 29

Friedrich Engels:DCSAO

Answer 29

Dialectical Materialism: Develops the dialectical method applied to the study of history and society, emphasizing the interplay of contradictory forces and the role of material conditions in shaping social development.
The Condition of the Working Class in England: Analyzes the social and economic conditions of the working class during the Industrial Revolution, highlighting the exploitation and suffering of workers under capitalism.
Scientific Socialism: Advances the idea of socialism as a scientific theory grounded in empirical analysis and historical materialism, offering a critique of utopian socialism and bourgeois ideology.
Anti-Dühring: Responds to the philosophical and economic ideas of Eugen Dühring, defending Marxist theory against criticism and elucidating key concepts such as the labor theory of value and the historical role of capitalism.
The Origin of the Family, Private Property and the State: Investigates the historical development of the family, private property, and the state, tracing their origins to changes in the mode of production and social organization.

Question 30

John Dewey:PIEDE

Answer 30

Pragmatism: Develops the philosophy of pragmatism, which emphasizes the practical consequences of beliefs and actions as the criterion for their truth and validity, rejecting absolutism and advocating for experimental inquiry.
Instrumentalism: Expounds instrumentalism as a version of pragmatism that focuses on the instrumental value of concepts and ideas in solving practical problems and guiding human action.
Experimentalism: Advocates for an experimental approach to knowledge and education, wherein experience serves as the basis for inquiry, reflection, and the continuous reconstruction of knowledge.
Democracy and Education: Argues for the integration of education with democratic ideals, emphasizing the role of education in fostering individual autonomy, social intelligence, and the development of democratic citizenship.
Ethical Naturalism: Proposes an ethical theory grounded in naturalistic principles, wherein ethical values emerge from human experience, social interaction, and the pursuit of collective welfare.

Question 30

Max WeberPRITV

Answer 30

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Protestant Ethic and the Spirit of Capitalism: Examines the relationship between Protestantism, particularly Calvinism, and the rise of capitalism, arguing that religious ideas influenced the development of modern economic systems.
Rationalization: Describes the process of rationalization as a pervasive cultural shift towards efficiency, calculability, and predictability in various spheres of social life, including bureaucracy, law, and science.
Iron Cage of Rationality: Warns of the disenchantment of the modern world, where rationalization leads to a loss of meaning, autonomy, and individuality, trapping individuals in an “iron cage” of bureaucratic control.
Types of Authority: Identifies three ideal types of authority—traditional, charismatic, and legal-rational—each based on different sources of legitimacy and mechanisms of rule.
Value Neutrality: Advocates for the value neutrality of social science, arguing that researchers should strive for objectivity and refrain from imposing their personal values or ideologies in their analysis.

Question 31

William James:PPRSW

Answer 31

Pluralism: Advocates for a pluralistic approach to truth and reality, wherein multiple perspectives and interpretations can coexist, each offering valuable insights into different aspects of the world.
Pragmatic Theory of Truth: Propounds the pragmatic theory of truth, which defines truth in terms of its practical consequences and usefulness in guiding human action and inquiry.
Radical Empiricism: Develops the philosophy of radical empiricism, which asserts that all experience is inherently interconnected and that reality consists of a continuous stream of lived experience.
Stream of Consciousness: Introduces the concept of the “stream of consciousness” as a dynamic flow of thoughts, feelings, and sensations, challenging traditional notions of the self and personal identity.
Will to Believe: Defends the rationality of faith and religious belief, arguing that individuals are justified in accepting certain beliefs based on their subjective needs and the pragmatic benefits of belief.

Question 31

Rudolf Steiner:ATWBG

Answer 31

Anthroposophy: Introduces anthroposophy, a spiritual philosophy that seeks to integrate spiritual insights with scientific understanding, emphasizing the development of human consciousness and the spiritual dimensions of existence.
Threefold Social Order: Proposes the idea of the threefold social order, which advocates for the autonomy and harmonious interaction of the cultural, economic, and political spheres of society, each governed by different principles.
Waldorf Education: Establishes the Waldorf education system, which emphasizes holistic development, creativity, and individualized learning, drawing on anthroposophical principles to cultivate the intellectual, artistic, and practical abilities of students.
Biodynamic Agriculture: Pioneers biodynamic agriculture, an approach to farming that integrates spiritual and ecological principles, emphasizing biodiversity, soil health, and the cosmic influences on plant growth and development.
Goethean Science: Advocates for a holistic and participatory approach to science inspired by the methodology of Johann Wolfgang von Goethe, which emphasizes qualitative observation, intuition, and the subjective engagement of the observer.

Question 32

Mahatma Gandhi:SSATS

Answer 32

Satyagraha: Develops the concept of satyagraha, or nonviolent resistance, as a method of political and social action based on truth, moral courage, and self-suffering, aiming to transform opponents through love and empathy.
Sarvodaya: Advocates for the principle of sarvodaya, or the welfare of all, which envisions a society based on decentralized, self-sustaining communities, voluntary simplicity, and the equitable distribution of resources.
Ahimsa: Emphasizes the principle of ahimsa, or nonviolence, as the foundation of ethical conduct and social harmony, encouraging individuals to cultivate compassion, forgiveness, and nonviolent resistance in their interactions.
Trusteeship: Proposes the concept of trusteeship, wherein wealthy individuals hold their resources and property in trust for the benefit of society, voluntarily renouncing excessive wealth and using their resources for the common good.
Swaraj: Advocates for swaraj, or self-rule, as both a political ideal and a spiritual principle, emphasizing the need for individuals to govern themselves internally through self-discipline, self-reliance, and moral integrity.

Question 33

Rabindranath Tagore:VSUEE

Answer 33

Visva-Bharati: Establishes Visva-Bharati University as an international center for learning and cultural exchange, promoting the ideals of universalism, humanism, and the synthesis of Eastern and Western thought.
Santiniketan: Founds Santiniketan as an experimental school based on the principles of holistic education, creativity, and harmony with nature, emphasizing the importance of arts, crafts, and indigenous knowledge.
Universalism: Advocates for the universality of human values and cultural exchange, challenging narrow nationalism and sectarianism, and celebrating the diversity of human expression and experience.
Education for Liberation: Proposes an education system that nurtures individuality, creativity, and critical thinking, empowering students to question authority, explore their potential, and contribute to social change.
Ecological Consciousness: Preaches the importance of ecological consciousness and the interconnectedness of all life forms, advocating for environmental stewardship, sustainable living, and respect for the natural world.

Question 34

Sri Aurobindo:IIELI

Answer 34

Integral Yoga: Develops Integral Yoga, a spiritual path that seeks to integrate all aspects of the individual—physical, vital, mental, and spiritual—towards the realization of divinity and the transformation of consciousness.
Integral Education: Proposes Integral Education, an approach to learning that aims to harmonize the development of the mind, body, and spirit, fostering the growth of the whole being and preparing individuals for a life of self-discovery and service.
Evolutionary Spirituality: Introduces the concept of evolutionary spirituality, which views spiritual evolution as an inherent aspect of human life and cosmic evolution, envisioning a future where humanity transcends its limitations and realizes its divine potential.
The Life Divine: Expounds upon the philosophy of The Life Divine, a comprehensive exploration of the nature of existence, consciousness, and evolution, presenting a vision of a divine life on Earth guided by the principles of unity, harmony, and love.
Integral Philosophy: Develops Integral Philosophy, which seeks to synthesize and reconcile the insights of Eastern and Western thought, science and spirituality, offering a holistic understanding of reality and the purpose of human existence.

Question 35

Alasdair MacIntyre:VTAVC

Answer 35

Virtue Ethics: Revives virtue ethics as a moral framework centered on the cultivation of virtuous character traits, emphasizing the importance of practical wisdom, moral excellence, and the pursuit of the good life within communities.
Tradition and Narrative: Emphasizes the role of tradition and narrative in shaping ethical reasoning and moral identity, arguing that ethical concepts and practices are embedded within specific cultural contexts and historical narratives.
After Virtue: Explores the decline of moral discourse and the fragmented state of contemporary ethics in After Virtue, advocating for a return to virtue-based ethics grounded in the Aristotelian tradition as a means of addressing moral relativism and nihilism.
Virtues and Practices: Highlights the connection between virtues and social practices, arguing that moral virtues are cultivated through participation in communal practices and traditions that embody ethical ideals and norms.
Critique of Modernity: Offers a critique of modernity and Enlightenment rationalism, arguing that the Enlightenment project has failed to provide a coherent foundation for ethics and has led to the erosion of moral authority and meaning in contemporary society.

Question 36

Emmanuel Levinas:EFIEC

Answer 36

Ethics of Otherness: Develops an ethics centered on the encounter with the Other, emphasizing the ethical responsibility to respond to the face of the Other with compassion, hospitality, and unconditional regard for their humanity.
Face-to-Face Encounter: Explores the significance of the face-to-face encounter in ethical relations, arguing that genuine ethical responsibility arises from the immediate encounter with the Other, which disrupts the self-centeredness of the ego.
Infinite Responsibility: Emphasizes the infinite responsibility of the self towards the Other, which transcends calculative reasoning and demands a selfless commitment to the well-being and dignity of the Other, even at the expense of one’s own interests.
Ethics as First Philosophy: Proposes ethics as a foundational discipline that precedes ontology and epistemology, contending that ethical relations with others constitute the primary mode of human existence and meaning.
Critique of Totality: Critiques totalizing systems of thought and political ideologies that subordinate the Other to abstract universal principles or social structures, advocating for the recognition of the irreducible alterity and uniqueness of each individual.

Question 37

Simone Weil:AAMEC

Answer 37

Attention and Grace: Emphasizes the importance of attention as a spiritual practice and a means of encountering the divine, suggesting that true attention to the world and others opens the individual to experiences of grace and transcendence.
Affliction and Compassion: Reflects on the nature of affliction and suffering, advocating for compassion and solidarity with those who are marginalized or oppressed, and highlighting the redemptive power of love and selflessness in the face of suffering.
Mystical Experience: Describes mystical experiences of union with the divine, characterized by a sense of awe, beauty, and transcendence, and explores the transformative potential of such experiences for individuals and societies.
Ethics of Attention: Proposes an ethics of attention grounded in mindfulness and receptivity to the needs of others, arguing that genuine moral action arises from a deep awareness of the interconnectedness and sacredness of all life.
Critique of Modernity: Critiques the dehumanizing effects of modern industrial society, consumerism, and bureaucracy, advocating for a return to spiritual values, simplicity, and solidarity with the marginalized as antidotes to the alienation of modern life.

Question 38

Hannah Arendt:ABEHV

Answer 38

Action and Plurality: Explores the nature of political action and human freedom, emphasizing the importance of plurality and diversity in the public sphere, and arguing that meaningful political action arises from the encounter with others in the shared world.
The Banality of Evil: Coins the phrase “the banality of evil” to describe the ordinary and bureaucratic nature of evil in totalitarian regimes, highlighting the role of thoughtlessness, conformity, and obedience in perpetuating systems of oppression.
Eichmann in Jerusalem: Reflects on the trial of Adolf Eichmann in Jerusalem, offering a controversial analysis of the nature of evil and responsibility, and raising questions about the complicity of ordinary individuals in acts of genocide.
The Human Condition: Explores the human condition in modern society, distinguishing between labor, work, and action as fundamental modes of human activity, and examining the tensions between private life and the public realm.
The Vita Activa: Advocates for the vita activa, or active life, as essential to human flourishing, arguing that meaningful engagement in public affairs, political action, and creative labor is central to the realization of human dignity and freedom.

Question 39

Albert Camus:AMRSP

Answer 39

Absurdism: Propounds the philosophy of absurdism, which confronts the inherent absurdity and meaninglessness of the human condition, and advocates for a courageous acceptance of the absurd without succumbing to despair or nihilism.
The Myth of Sisyphus: Explores the theme of existential absurdity in The Myth of Sisyphus, presenting the myth of Sisyphus as a metaphor for the human struggle to find meaning and purpose in a universe devoid of inherent meaning.
Rebellion and Revolt: Celebrates the spirit of rebellion and revolt against injustice, oppression, and absurdity, advocating for acts of defiance and defiance in the face of absurdity and oppression, and affirming the value of individual freedom and dignity.
The Stranger: Portrays the absurdity of human existence through the character of Meursault in The Stranger, who confronts the indifference and absurdity of the world with a detached and nihilistic attitude, culminating in his existential revolt against societal norms and expectations.
The Plague: Explores the themes of suffering, solidarity, and resilience in the face of adversity, as the inhabitants of a fictional Algerian town confront a deadly plague, illustrating the human capacity for heroism, compassion, and solidarity in times of crisis.

Question 40

Martin Buber:IDECE

Answer 40

I-Thou and I-It Relationships: Proposes the concept of I-Thou and I-It relationships as fundamental modes of human encounter. I-Thou relationships involve authentic and reciprocal engagement with others as unique individuals, while I-It relationships involve instrumental or objectifying attitudes towards others.
Dialogue and Encounter: Emphasizes the importance of dialogue and encounter in fostering genuine human relationships. Buber believes that authentic dialogue enables individuals to transcend their egos and connect with others in a meaningful and transformative way.
Existentialism and Hasidism: Integrates existentialist themes with insights from Jewish Hasidic mysticism, blending philosophical inquiry with spiritual reflection. Buber’s work seeks to bridge the gap between secular philosophy and religious experience.
Community and Communion: Advocates for the cultivation of genuine community and communion among individuals, based on mutual respect, empathy, and recognition of the inherent value of each person.
Ethics of Responsibility: Argues for an ethics of responsibility grounded in relationality and care for others. Buber contends that ethical action arises from a sense of interconnectedness and commitment to the well-being of the broader human community.

Question 41

Dietrich Bonhoeffer:CERRC

Answer 41

Costly Grace: Explores the concept of “costly grace,” which emphasizes the radical demands of discipleship and the call to embody ethical principles even in the face of persecution or suffering. Bonhoeffer contrasts costly grace with “cheap grace,” which he views as a superficial and self-serving form of religious faith.
Ethics of Responsibility: Advocates for an ethics of responsibility that prioritizes concrete action and engagement with the world. Bonhoeffer’s ethical framework emphasizes the importance of discerning God’s will in the midst of complex moral dilemmas and taking courageous action on behalf of justice and righteousness.
Resistance to Tyranny: Participates in the German resistance movement against the Nazi regime, demonstrating his commitment to opposing injustice and tyranny. Bonhoeffer’s involvement in resistance activities reflects his belief in the moral imperative to confront evil and defend human dignity.
Religionless Christianity: Explores the concept of “religionless Christianity,” which calls into question traditional religious forms and rituals in favor of a more authentic and embodied faith. Bonhoeffer suggests that true Christianity requires a radical reorientation of one’s life towards concrete acts of love and service.
The Church and the World: Reflects on the role of the church in the modern world, advocating for a socially engaged and prophetic church that bears witness to God’s presence in human history. Bonhoeffer’s theology emphasizes the importance of living out one’s faith in the context of social and political realities.

Question 42

Karl Popper:FOLPP

Answer 42

Falsifiability: Introduces the principle of falsifiability as a criterion for demarcating scientific theories from non-scientific ones. Popper argues that scientific hypotheses must be capable of being empirically tested and potentially refuted through observation or experimentation.
Open Society: Advocates for the concept of the “open society,” which prioritizes individual freedom, democratic governance, and social progress. Popper contrasts the open society with totalitarian systems, arguing that open societies are characterized by critical thinking, pluralism, and respect for human rights.
The Logic of Scientific Discovery: Outlines Popper’s philosophy of science, which emphasizes the importance of conjecture and refutation in the advancement of knowledge. Popper argues that scientific progress occurs through the continuous testing and revision of theories in response to empirical evidence.
The Paradox of Tolerance: Discusses the paradox of tolerance, which explores the tension between defending individual freedom and combating intolerance within a democratic society. Popper suggests that unlimited tolerance of intolerant ideologies can ultimately undermine the principles of tolerance and democracy.
Political Philosophy: Engages with questions of political philosophy, including the nature of democracy, the role of the state, and the limits of political authority. Popper’s political thought emphasizes the need for critical scrutiny of political power and the protection of individual liberties against authoritarianism.

Question 42

Jacques Derrida:DDTED

Answer 42

Deconstruction: Pioneers the method of deconstruction, which involves the critical examination of binary oppositions and hierarchies embedded in language and thought. Derrida seeks to destabilize fixed meanings and reveal the inherent ambiguity and indeterminacy of texts.
Différance: Introduces the concept of différance, which denotes the simultaneous processes of difference and deferral inherent in language and signification. Derrida argues that meaning is never fully present but is always deferred and deferred, giving rise to a complex interplay of interpretations.
Trace and Hauntology: Explores the themes of trace and hauntology, which refer to the persistence of absent or repressed elements within language and culture. Derrida suggests that traces of the past continue to exert influence on the present, haunting our understanding of reality.
Ethics of Hospitality: Advocates for an ethics of hospitality based on openness to the other and welcome of difference. Derrida contends that genuine ethical encounters require a willingness to engage with alterity and embrace the radical alterity of the other.
Deconstruction of Metaphysics: Critiques traditional metaphysical frameworks and ontological assumptions, exposing the limitations of fixed categories and foundationalist claims. Derrida’s deconstructive approach challenges the idea of stable identity and invites constant interrogation of established norms and concepts.

Question 43

Jürgen Habermas:CDPTC

Answer 43

Communicative Action: Propounds the theory of communicative action, which highlights the role of language and discourse in shaping social reality. Habermas argues that rational communication based on mutual understanding is essential for the establishment of a just and democratic society.
Discourse Ethics: Develops discourse ethics as a framework for ethical decision-making, emphasizing the importance of rational discourse and consensus-building in resolving moral conflicts. Habermas contends that ethical principles emerge through open and inclusive dialogue among free and equal participants.
Public Sphere: Explores the concept of the public sphere as a site for democratic deliberation and the exchange of ideas among citizens. Habermas suggests that a vibrant public sphere is essential for fostering political participation and holding power-holders accountable.
Theory of Communicative Rationality: Elaborates on the theory of communicative rationality, which posits that rationality is embedded in the process of communicative action. Habermas argues that rational consensus-building through dialogue can lead to the emergence of normative principles that guide ethical conduct.
Critical Theory: Advances critical theory as a method of social critique aimed at uncovering and challenging forms of domination and oppression in society. Habermas draws on insights from the Frankfurt School tradition to analyze the systemic injustices present in modern capitalist societies.

Question 43

Michel Foucault:PDBGE

Answer 43

Power/Knowledge: Explores the interrelation between power and knowledge, arguing that systems of knowledge are always embedded within structures of power. Foucault investigates how power operates through discourses, institutions, and practices to produce and regulate social reality.
Disciplinary Society: Analyzes the emergence of disciplinary mechanisms in modern society, such as surveillance, normalization, and classification, which exert control over individuals’ bodies and behaviors. Foucault examines how disciplinary power operates in various institutions, including prisons, hospitals, and schools.
Biopolitics: Investigates the intersection of politics and biology, focusing on how states regulate populations’ health, reproduction, and well-being. Foucault introduces the concept of biopower to describe the management of life processes by modern institutions of governance.
Genealogy: Develops the method of genealogy as a critical inquiry into the historical conditions and power relations that shape knowledge and subjectivity. Foucault traces the genealogy of concepts, practices, and institutions to reveal their contingent and contingent nature.
Ethics of Existence: Explores alternative modes of ethical self-formation outside traditional moral frameworks, emphasizing practices of self-care, resistance, and freedom. Foucault’s ethics of existence encourages individuals to cultivate autonomy and creativity in navigating power relations and shaping their lives.