Global English

Question 1

Pidgin

Answer 1

A grammatically simplified form of a language, typically English, Dutch or Portuguese, some elements of which are taken from local languages, used for communication between people not sharing a common language.

Question 2

Creole

Answer 2

A mother tongue formed from the contact of a European language (especially English and French) with local languages (especially African languages spoken by slaves in the West Indies).

Question 3

Acrolect

Answer 3

The variety of speech that is closest to a standard prestige language, especially in an area where a creole is spoken.

Question 4

Basilect

Answer 4

The variety of speech that is most remote to a standard prestige language, especially in an area where a creole is spoken.

Question 5

Derek Bickerton

on acrolect and basilect

Answer 5

“For Derek Bickerton, an acrolect refers to the variety of a creole that has no significant difference from Standard English, often spoken by the most educated speakers; the mesolect has unique grammatical features that distinguish it from Standard English; and the basilect, often spoken by the least educated people of the society, has very significant grammatical difference.

Question 6

Diaspora

Answer 6

The dispersal of language around the world.

Question 7

Globalisation

Answer 7

The process by which businesses, or other organisations, develop international influence or operate on an international scale.

Question 8

Lingua Franca

Answer 8

A language that is adopted as a common language between speakers whose native language are different.

Question 9

Heritage Language

Answer 9

A language that is not the dominant language in the society in which someone lives, yet it is one that is spoken at home.

Question 10

Code Switching

Answer 10

When speakers who speak two or more different languages switch from one to the other, often in mid conversation. Can also be used to refer to switching between dialects of the same accent.

Question 11

Janet Holmes on code switching

Answer 11

1. Don’t need to be perfect speakers of the second language. ​
2. Can use individual words or phrases to reaffirm or signal their ethnic identity to others, thus creating a sense of solidarity. ​
3. Code switching can be used as a way of performing identity; one person with two languages may have two identities.

Question 12

intrasentential code switching

Answer 12

• switches inside/within sentence/utterances
• typically found in communities where all speakers are fluent in more than one language

Question 13

intersential code switching

Answer 13

one sentence in one language and another sentence in another language

Question 14

Sharma and Sankaran’s investigation of Punjabi speaking Indians in 2011

Answer 14

Sharma and Sankaran’s aim
- to investigate the english of 3 age groups of Punjabi speaking Indians in West London

Sharma and Sankaran’s sample
- 3 age groups of punjabi speaking indians in west london
- oldest group= first generation immigrants who arrived as adults from 1950s onwards
- second and third groups= children of immigrants

Sharma and Sankaran’s findings
- older gen= seemed to vary forms used considerably, 100% Indian when talking to maid to 100% British when talking to Cockney mechanic
- far less variation in younger gen speakers

explaining sharma and sankaran’s findings
- older gen faced more hostile, anti-immigrant community and therefore under more pressure to integrate linguistically
- younger gen in more mixed neighbourhoods but with British Asians in a majority, less need to switch between speech styles to the same extent

Question 15

Linguistic Prestige

Michael Pearce

Answer 15

“Social and linguistic prestige is interrelated,” notes Michael Pearce. “The language of powerful social groups usually carries linguistic prestige; and social prestige is often granted to speakers of prestige languages and varieties.”

In the case of overt prestige, the social valuation lies in a unified, widely accepted set of social norms, whereas with covert prestige the positive social significance lies in the local culture of social relations. It is, therefore, possible for a socially stigmatized variant in one setting to have covert prestige in another.

Question 16

Covert Prestige

Answer 16

The less obvious or hidden prestige associated with the use of certain non-standard varieties of a language within particular social groups.

Question 17

Overt Prestige

Answer 17

The obvious prestige associated with the use of the standard variety of a language within a particular society. Connected to notions of speaking ‘properly’.

Question 18

Multiethnolect

Answer 18

A collection of linguistic resources combining features from a variety of languages within a multi-ethnic, multicultural context.

Question 19

Kachru’s three circles

Answer 19

1. The Inner Circle: where English is used as a first language, acquired from birth by most
2. The Outer Circle: includes countries colonised by Britain and the USA where English is spoken as a second language and plays an important historical and governmental role
3. The Expanding Circle: where English is not an official language, but is recognised as important as a foreign language, perhaps for trade

Question 20

Canagarajah criticism of Kachru’s circles

Answer 20

Questioned the validity of Kachru’s circles as migration and modern technology have led to the ‘leaking’ of clearly defined circles.

Question 21

Kandiah on the spread of English

Answer 21

The reason for the spread of the English Language was colonisation.

Question 22

David Crystal on English as the world’s leading language

Answer 22

1. English was distributed around the world as the language of the British Empire.
2. It was the language of the industrial revolution, technological innovation and western science.
3. It is the language of the USA, the world’s remaining super-power.

Question 23

Edgar W. Schneider’s dynamic model of postcolonial English

Answer 23

1. Foundation- English is newly distributed to a geographical area.
2. Exonormative stabilisation- English begins to be used, modelled closely on the British standard forms.
3. Nativisation- Old and new languages become more closely linked. Neologisms (coinage) occur.
4. Endonormative stabilisation- The local variety of English is accepted as the norm.
5. Differentiation- New variety reflects local identity and culture.

Question 24

Valley talk

Answer 24

The sound of Valleyspeak has these main habits: nasal sound; fast-paced run-on sentences; breathiness; uptalk, or the sound of a question; and vocal fry. High rising terminal (also called “up speak” or “uptalk”) is a defining feature of Valleyspeak.

Question 25

Singlish

Answer 25

Singlish first emerged when Singapore gained independence 50 years ago, and decided that English should be the common language for all its different races.​

Among ordinary Singaporeans, Singlish tends to be spoken in informal situations - with friends and family, taking a taxi or buying groceries. It indicates casual intimacy. English, on the other hand, is used for formal situations - at school, or at work, especially when meeting strangers or clients.​

Over time, it has become a social marker - someone who can effectively switch between the two languages is perceived to be more educated and of a higher social status than someone who can only speak Singlish.​

Question 26

Speak Good Campaign

Answer 26

A Campaign created by the Singaporean government to encourage the spoken use of English as a prestigious variety.

Question 27

Noah Webster

Answer 27

A linguistic and American Lexicographer who recorded the first forms of American English creating America’s first Dictionary.