global development Flashcards
What is global development?
relating to different levels of ‘progress’ in a country’s economic, social, political and technological conditions
For a country to be considered ‘developed’ what does a country have?
- expansive trade relations with other countries
- Good HDI - development indicator
-solid infrastructure - government investment
-birth rate - death rate
-rate of population growth - wealth
-technology - transport
- healthcare
- diverse economy
-gender equality
-democracy
economic development: What is GNI?
- GNI is measure of all money, goods, services and investments that come or stay in the country (per capita, per person)
- gross national income is the value of all income produced by a country’s residents (both citizens and foreign residents) within all geographic boundaries, plus net receipts of income (wages, salary and property income) from abroad.
-However, some sociologists use GNI with caution and see issues with it as a development indicator.
What are the issues of using GNI as a sole indicator of development?
- economic growth does not cover social improvements
- GNI is an average. Very rich people in a country will skew the poorest GNI and hide inequalities within an economy
-GNI only includes the official economy, informal work is not included, often stereotypically the work of women, it could be argued there is a gender bias - continuous economic growth does not automatically mean it is sustainable (resources can run out)
- lacks reliability; it is hard to accurately measure GNI
What are some commonly used measures of development?
- education - percentage of school aged children attending school and literacy
- health - child and infant mortality rates, maternal mortality rates, number of doctors and hospitals to the population
- democracy - free and fair elections, eligibility
- gender equality - differences in male to female education, health, politics and more
what is the HDI (human development index)?
it is a composite and uses a combination of economic and social development - 1 economic and 2 social , lower the value (furthest from 1) , the less developed
what are the 3 things that the United Nations Development Programme (UNPD) measure when looking at the development of a country?
- material standard of living (GNI per capita)
- education (leaving age and literacy rates)
- health (life expectancy)
advantages of using the Human development index
easy to compare between countries, as it is more quantitative
mix of different factors, not just economic
one problem with using the Human Development Index
it doesn’t give detail into why these countries may not be as developed, just states that they are.
Why is it useful to compare the GNI and HDI of nations?
It allows us to see what areas need more focus on economic differences and social differences, allowing us to see what areas need more attention in certain ways and whether the money is being put in the right places - high HDI but low GNI suggests that they are putting it in the right places
what is the gross national happiness?
In 1972, the King of Bhutan, in response to criticism of the slow economic growth in his country, came up with a plan that rejected the pursuit of economic growth, but rather reflected his Bhudist values. The Gross national happiness index takes into account spiritual and psychological aspects of development
what is happy planet index?
created by the New economics foundation, gives a score to countries with smaller ecological footprints. It also includes well-being and life expectancy.
Costa Rica was at the top of this index in 2014
what is good country index?
this measure tries to quantify the contribution that each country makes to “the common good of humanity”, rather than their own leaders, businesses and citizens
what is multidimensional poverty index?
a new measure that replaced the human poverty index, looking at poverty as multidimensional and looks at measures of health, education and living standards
what is gender equality index?
this measures the disadvantage faced by girls and women in reproductive health, empowerment and participation in the labour market
what is inequality - adjusted human development index ?
if a country’s people are all equal, its IHDI is the same as the HDI, if not, the IDHI goes down. The difference can be given as a percentage.
what were the Millennium development goals: a set of eight development goals adopted by the UN in 2000 to be achieved by 2015?
eradicate extreme poverty and hunger
achieve universal primary education
promote gender equality and the power of women
reduce child mortality
improve maternal health
combat HIV/ AIDS, malaria and other diseases
ensure environmental sustainability
develop a global partnership for development
How do we measure poverty?
the UN uses absolute poverty, which means living on less than $1.25 a day as part of their goal
this is in contrast to relative poverty, poverty compared to others globally, nationally or locally
after 2015, the sustainable development goals were set
what is meant by the three worlds
this definition dates back to the cold war and is one of the conventional ways of separating countries in the world
first world: the industrialised, capitalised countries of the world - USA, England, Japan, Australia, New zealand
second world: the industrialised, communist countries of the world: the soviet union and other eastern european countries
third world: the rest of the world, central and south america, africa, asia
first and second world are used much less than third world
after the collapse of the soviet union, we saw a huge decline in the use of second world countries and even divide in third world countries - the non aligned movement became much less important
what is meant by the north and south
the developed, industrialised countries are mainly in the northern hemisphere and the poorer, undeveloped countries are more in the southern hemisphere
known as the north and south from the 1970s onwards
the distinction was used by Brandt Commision in the 1980s in an attempt to give suggestions on how to reduce poverty
what is meant by the MEDC’S, LEDC’s and LLEDC’S
MEDCS stands for more economically developed countries
LEDCS stands for less economically developed countries
LLEDCS stands for least economically developed countries
what is meant by the developed, undeveloped and underdeveloped
the difference between undeveloped and underdeveloped countries is up to interpretation
undeveloped suggests that the poor country has not experienced progress
underdeveloped suggests that the poor world has been made poor due to the exploitation of the rich
what is meant by the Majority and Minority worlds
a more recent attempt to describe the world but it is not as widespread. Majority refers to the third world and the fact that 2⁄3 or more of the world live here
minority refers to the rich, drawing attention to how difficult it is to be a part of this group
what is meant by the bottom billion
originally used by the economist Paul Collier (2007), it is a term used to acknowledge that many parts of what were once “third world countries” have achieved some level of development
he says that the reason why certain countries like in africa is because they have been affected by things like war
he argues that countries like china and india that are achieving levels of development, will soon bring economic growth on social indicators so there needs to be more focus on the countries that do not have this potential.
what is modernisation theory?
Modernisation theory is the dominant developmental theory of the 1960’s based on factors internal to third world countries inhibiting their own development.
what are the aims of modernisation theory?
- Attempts to explain why poorer countries have failed to develop by focusing on the process of development i.e. how traditional societies could evolve into modern developed societies
- A non-communist solution to poverty in the developing world by proposing that economic change (in the form of capitalism) and cultural change could play a critical role in bringing about modernisation.
who is the theorist associated with modernisation theory?
WW Rostow was best associated with modernisation theory. The theory heavily relates to the Cold War period when the USA offered reasons to newly independent countries why they should ally themselves with the West and not with the Soviet Union.
what does Talcott Parsons say about underdeveloped countries?
they are too attached to traditional practices, customs, and rituals.
things like religious values that stress patriarchy, ascription, particularism and fatalism can prevent change
what is egoism according to durkheim?
self-interest as the foundation of morality and one’s individual actions.
what is alturism according to durkheim?
viewing society as more real than themselves. will take part in self sacrificing actions to help the group survive
what is the trickle down effect?
the idea that the money from the wealthier countries will eventually trickle down to the poorer countries
what are the social obstacles?
- Social systems that impede social mobility
- Acceptance of new work patterns
what are the main assessts of a modern society?
- Educational opportunity
- Individual freedom
-Rule of law
To what extent is modernisation theory relevant today?
- Like functionalism, tends to be dismissed as no longer relevant, yet it laid the foundations, for example:
- Communism - proved not to be a good way to achieve development. China’s economic growth been achieved through capitalism. Many developing nations aspire to western standards of growth and consumption.
- Aid between rich and poor continues (Morocco and Libya current examples)
- India/China at ‘take-off’ in late 1950s - 60 years to maturity?
What was Hoselitz’s view on modernisation theory?
education is most important as it should speed up the introduction of Western values such as universalism, individualism, competition and achievement measured by examinations. This was seen as a way of breaking the link between family and children
what is dependancy theory?
a sociological theory which holds that economic events in history have encouraged developing countries to depend upon the support of more advanced nations.
Where modernisation theory comes clearly from the developed world, dependency theory takes the perspective of developing countries, seen as a ‘view from the south’, based on Latin American economies.
who was Andre Gunder Frank and what did he argue?
The main proponent of dependency theory and argued underdevelopment paved the way for the development of the West.
what are the key ideas of dependency
- The reason these places are poor and under-developed are because of the structure of exploitation, capitalism and world trade.
- Modernisation tends to forget the historic experience of the Third World. (External rather than internal factors).
- The rich countries benefit from the under-developed ones, by means of cheap labour and raw materials.
- They want nationalism and self-reliance from under-developed countries, not reliance on Aid
what is the first stage of exploitation of ‘third world’ countries beginning
Stage 1: Mercantile Capitalism;
essentially in the 15th and 16th centuries Europeans went all over the world trading goods and selling them back in Europe for loads more than they were worth.
This saw the beginning of the Triangular trade, the slave trade, from Europe, West Africa and the Americas.
what is the second stage of exploitation of ‘third world’ countries beginning
Stage 2: Colonialism
- Many western european countries such as the UK and France decided to take direct control of lands rather than just violently trade with them.
- These places were exploited for extra cheap goods, and local industry was destroyed so that it wouldn’t become competition.
Everything was turned into money so that the workers could pay taxes through their wages.
what is the third stage of exploitation of ‘third world’ countries beginning
Stage 3: Neo-colonialism
- Most colonies gained independence in mid twentieth century.
Although colonisers gave up direct political control, they did not give up economic control and these countries continued to be economically dependent. - These newly independent countries struggled to become stable as they had no tradition of self-rule or democracy and few entrepreneurs.
- They were locked into a one-sided relationship with developed countries e.g. exporting cash crops.
- The borders between countries, particularly in Africa, were fixed by colonial powers and do not correspond to where different groups of people live thus leading to conflict.
- They became dependent on aid, continued to be underdeveloped and remained in a state of dependency.
what are the core features of neoliberalism?
- political and economic policies on unrestricted free markets and free trades - foundation for human flourishing
- government interference with free trade is a bad thing
- industries, high taxing is a bad thing
-shrinking the size of government - individual failings lead to social inequality
- people should have the freedom for their own change and growth
- Neoliberalism insists that developing countries remove obstacles to free market capitalism, and allow capitalism to generate development. The argument is that, if allowed to work freely, capitalism will generate wealth which will trickle down to everyone
what are the positives of neoliberalism?
- with no trade tariff or duties, a wide choice of goods can be bought worldwide at a low cost
-transnational corporations freely invest overseas due to skilled workforces and no trade barriers - promotes entrepreneurship and competitive businesses
what are the criticisms of neoliberalism?
- policies do not mitigate social inequalities
- remove safety nets provided by governments
- fails to account for structural forms of violence - structural poverty, racism
- declining governments power and influence due to increased TNC power (trans national cooperations)
- poor countries have to repay all historical debt, with interest
now being surpassed by “post- neoliberalism” ideas of greater government spending
what are the stages of the multiplier effect?
- due to economic growth, immigration to an area increases
- this makes more TNCS want to invest
- this creates more jobs
-this leads to higher levels of consumption
-this leads to economic growth
who emphasised laissez-faire and what is it?
- milton Friedman and Peter Baur influenced economic policy of Thatcherism and Reaganism - laissez-faire (leave economic forces to do what they will or the economy will be damaged)
what was Freidman’s argument?
- government should not be involved in the economy except four main functions:
1. defence
2. law and order
3. the provision of the necessary public works that private enterprise does not find profitable to provide
4. protection from members of the community who “cannot be regarded as “responsible individuals”
Baur (british development economist) argument
- Baur advocates a wider range of functions for governments:
- the basic health and education
- management of the monetary and fiscal (taxation/spending) system - strongly criticised government-to-government aids as neither necessary not efficient. he argued that it posed the danger of promoting government power, destroying economic incentives as well as eroding civic initiatives and dynamism
Friedman and Bauer argue that:
- the production, distribution and trade of good and services are best left to private (profit making) rather than public (government owned and regulated) organisations
- the free market will regulate itself and lead to increased economic growth e.g as in Hong Kong (low taxes and fee port trade)
- government central planning fails to raise living standards
- but critics say this is not the case with sweden and former soviet union which have not been successful
what is the theory impasse (Boothe 1985) ?
1980s - modernization and dependency theories unable to adequately explain how the world was changing
the end of the cold war and globalisation (close connections around the world) added to this
key reasons:
- the failure of development
- post modernism
- globalisation
- environmentalism
what is the failure of development in terms of the theory impasse?
in the 1960s and 1970s, most developing countries made some progress towards economic growth, as well as development on social issues like literacy and life expectancy. However, the following decade saw a slow down and even reversal of this development, making the 1980s the “lost decade”. Modernisation could not explain the failure to take off, while dependency theory could not explain the changes that were happening - eg end of communism
what is postmodernism in terms of the theory impasse?
postmodernist ideas began to undermine the “meta narratives”, not only marxists . but the very idea of development. Postmodernists argued that development and the development theories carried assumptions about social evolution and progress, were based on westernised ideas. this lead to the idea of “post development”
what is globalisation in terms of the theory impasse?
at first, not all social scientists accepted the idea of globalisation. But, the concept opened up new debates that increasingly overlapped with debates about development.
what is environmentalism in terms of the theory impasse?
there was a growing concern that development meant industrialisation, which would cause environmental damage and would not be sustainable
what is people-centred development and environmentalism?
- large scale (top - down) government projects weren’t lifting people out of poverty. they argued that development should be based on:
- sustainability
- participation
- justice
- meeting people’s basic needs
- small - scale, run by NGOs (non governmental organisations), decided on by local communities. NGOs grew and money channelled to them instead of governments
- fits in with neoliberalism - reduced government spending / role of government
People centred development can improve life BUT…
- unlikely to life a whole country out of poverty
- can be seen as a means for government to evade responsibility
how is a focus on environmentalism thought to help?
- environmentalist approach to development focuses on sustainability
- sustainable development a widely accepted term, however, environmentalists argue the economic growth is not sustainable and what is needed is “degrowth” - a reduction in production and consumption
- leads to increased happiness and well being
what is Escobar’s theory on post modernisation?
- the post development school of though points out that the previous models of development (modernisation, neoliberal and to some extent dependency) are often ethnocentric based on western models of industrialization that are unsustainable in this world of limited resources and ineffective for their ignorance of the local, cultural and historical contexts of the peoples to which they are applied
- In essence, the problem post development theorists see in development and its practice is an imbalance of influence or domination by the west.
- Post development theorists promote more pluralisms in ideas about development
- The rich cannot lift the poor out of poverty, local communities need to address their own problems using their own ideas.
- People have to develop themselves, rather than relying on ill - suited ideas from overseas
what are some positives of post modernisation theory?
- countries do not have to develop according to western ideas
- local communities could be empowered by creating their own development ideas
- developing countries do not have to follow the cultural and moral guidance of development donors
- data shows that absolute poverty has been halved
what are some negatives of post modernisation theory?
- provides limited practical alternatives to replace overseas assistance
- the poorest of the poor will struggle to meet their basic needs in the short term
waht are the main features of world system theories?
- neo marxist theory
- Wallerstein argued that there were levels of both exploitation and dependency in a new world system - interdependence between core, periphery and semi periphery
- core nations are dominant, industrialised, capitalist nations
- peripheral nations are the poorests nations, lacking in economic and social infrastructure
- semi peripheral takes elements at both - newly industrialised countries
- states that semi peripheral are exploited by the core, but exploit the peripheral
- core nations benefit from selling good to the other nations - many westernised TNCs will run private health and education systems
- the semi peripheral nations sell consumer goods and exploit the cheap labour and resources
how does world system theory link to other theories?
- it was developed in response to the criticisms of dependency theory by Immanuel Wallerstein
- dependency theory only examined two types of nations - metropolis and satellite - and assumed dependency of poorer nations on the wealthy
- the key difference is the exploitation that happens to and by the semi peripheral
what are the solutions proposed by world system theory?
- developed relationship between different nations - a criticism of dependency theory
- defined the extent of dependency that nations have upon each other, something that dependency theory failed to do
explained historical significance of colonialism and - industrialisation as modern world systems evolve- nations can move up and down the hierarchy
what are the criticisms of world system theory?
- offers few alternatives to existing levels of capitalism
f- ails to acknowledge the control that the core nations put in place to maintain their position - based upon economic means of development only,not holistic
- core, semi - periphery and periphery are abstract concepts that cannot be measured.
What is globalisation?
- the interconnection of the world in terms of time and space. It has been made possible, among other things by the spread of free market capitalism
- started at the end of the cold war and collapse of soviet union in 1989, Add in rapid changes in communication technology, this made the possible of free market capitalism
- this has been then imposed on many developing countries though structural adjustment plans (SAPs) and pressure to get debt relief
How does globalisation relate to the companies at the start?
- these companies are all TNCs or transnational corporations
- this relates to the process by which businesses or other organisations develop international influence or start operating on an international scale
Globalisation and capitalism or free market
- When consider globalisation to create greater inequalities within and between nations, then can consider “alternative globalisation”
- includes global movements and developments like fair trade, gender equality, human rights, spread of demands for greater political freedom (e.g arab spring in 2011)
- therefore globalisation isn’t just economic but has political and cultural dimensions as well
political globalisation
- writers assume that as capitalism spreads, so will the political system of liberal democracy to ensure a free and fair election
- there are fewer dictatorships around the world and elections are closely observed
- nation states become less important than TNCs
what is global decision making?
states acting together and making decisions at a global level
economic globalisation
- new international division of labour - the new global economic order said to be produced by factory production moving from the developed world to some developing countries.
- NIDL replaced the traditional division of labour which had been established in the colonial periods
- they can be misleading because many poor countries still heavily depend on exporting foods and raw materials while rich countries still have some manufacturing industries
- in the 1970’s manufacturers moved away from developed countries, to developing countries
cultural globalisation
- there is a dynamic between economics, values and culture that tends to accelerate globalization
examples: - world sport
- world tourism
what are the stages of Mcdonaldisation?
efficiency
calculability
predictability
control
what is mcdonaldisation?
Mcdonaldization is the process of culture and society taking on the principles of fast food chains like mcdonalds, local cultures soon become highly westernised under cultural hybridization. It was first used by George Ritzer in his book “the mcdonaldization of society” in 1991 and is a process that focuses on rationality on logic and replaces traditions and value with calculated behaviour
what are the criticisms of mcdonaldisation?
- McDonaldization does not require a skilled workforce. Focusing on the four key characteristics that produce McDonaldization has eliminated the need for skilled workers
- it has lead to an increase in free consumer labour
- it has lead to a process of dehumanizing workers
- it has caused a decrease in the quality of wider societal things like education as quantity is valued much more
what is the neoliberalism view on globalisation?
- See globalisation as the worldwide extension of capitalism or, the free market
- This leads to economic growth, eradication of poverty, and spread of democracy all around the world
- Countries that are embracing the global free market are the ones where development is happening now
- Globalisation spreads benefits of capitalism around the world
- Allowing people to use their entrepreneurial skills by liberalising markets will produce wealth that will ‘trickle down’ to the whole population
what is the radical view on neoliberalism?
- the spread of capitalism is seen as a negative thing and is not environmentally sustainable
- widens the gap between the rich and the poor
- seen as cultural imperialism ( imposition of western values)
- destroys local culture
what is the transnationalist view of globalisation?
- globalisation is unstoppable
- it is possible for individuals to reject the negative aspect of globalization and embrace the positive
- hybridization is actually seen as creating more diveristy, even when it comes ot things like mcdonalidzation
- leads to glocalisation ( intertwining of global and local culture) and reverse cultural flow
- globalization is transofrming the hierarchy of north nad south into first and third world countries
How far has economic globalisation gone?
- There are still many national companies, and even the largest corporations have clear national bases, so there are more MNCs than TNCs.
- Even if national governments have less control over their economics than in the past, regional governments can provide protection for workers and insist on things like basic human rights, minimising TNCs’ power.
- Hirt and Thompson argue that economic globalisation is a myth and we are still much closer to the place of having nation states which control the direction taken by the world economy
- They see no real evidence for economic globalisation and highlight the economic downturn since 2008
How far has political globalisation gone?
- governments still have the ability to influence developments - it is national governments that are entering in the agreements that create national organisation - they still have influence over taxes, wages and war
- More and more countries are using liberal ideology and democracy to stay in power - for example dictators such as Robert Mugabe in Zimbabwe can claim democracy and election, even though there has been very little change there.
- Despite priding itself on democracy, US dismisses the lack of democracy in any of its allies
- However, we are seeing a decline in dictatorships
- People become more active in global politics
How far has cultural globalisation gone?
- western and American culture is evident all over the world
- migration of people encourages the spread of culture
- western culture can be seen as degrading local culture
- globalisation can often unsettle people so they chose to return to their original values - this can hold them only back from globalisation
what does Sklair beleive about TNCs?
the winners are the “transnational capitalist class” (Sklair) - who are no longer tied to national boundaries
what do neoliberalists believe about who benefits from globalisation?
Neoliberalists argue that the poor only miss out because they are not yet sufficiently integrated.
what do transnationalists Cohen and Kennedy argue about who wins with globalisation?
Cohen and Kennedy argue that globalisation has created both “global winners” who have increased their power and global losers who are missing out
what is a darker aspect of globalisation?
- terror attacks having the ability to operate and organize globally
- instance like 9/11 cause pressure nad hatred towards countried and globalisation
what does Kunstler (2005) argue
that there is nothing inevitable about globalisation and that it is coming to a close. and the factors that globalisation was based around :the peace of the cold war and cheap industrial products are fading
what does Saul argue about globalsiation ?
globalsiation reached its peak in the mid 1990s with the formation of World Trade organisation but has been challenged by countries gaining more independance
what is an actor in terms of nation states?
those that have a role i.e TNC,NGO, nation state. sometimes called “stakeholders”
what is a nation state?
a sovereign state of which most of the citizens or subjects are united also by factors which define a nation, such as language or common descent.
How can nation states claim power in the new world of globalisation?
- conflict
- negotiating
- loans
How can states be successful agents of their own development?
- they have the ability to control and make changes to the free market
- state run industries are large and encourage high levels of employment
How can states be unsuccessful agents of their own development?
- they make it hard to achieve a sense of national identity
- they are set up for control rather than improving living standards and developing
- they are fading and TNCs are having much more power
states can often be corrupt and prevent development of the country to ensure their best - governments of developing countries make it difficult to develop as they have such little money to spend
what are TNCs ?
- Transnational corporations (TNCs) are businesses that have a global reach. They are companies that operate in more than one country
-they operate (produce and sell) in more than one country - they aim to maximise profits and lower costs
- they are responsible for 80% of global trade
- 69 of the richest 100 entities in the world are TNCs rather than countries
how can TNCs be successful agents of development ?
- they bring in lots of investment where local countries do not have the capability
-they trained workers they need can raise the aspirations of those in a country - they provide more opportunities for women
- they bring in modern values like gender equality to countries who may not have had it before
- they will pay for developing infrastructure that will develop a country
-they encourage international trade and open up new markets
