global development Flashcards
1
Q
What is global development?
A
relating to different levels of ‘progress’ in a country’s economic, social, political and technological conditions
2
Q
For a country to be considered ‘developed’ what does a country have?
A
- expansive trade relations with other countries
- Good HDI - development indicator
-solid infrastructure - government investment
-birth rate - death rate
-rate of population growth - wealth
-technology - transport
- healthcare
- diverse economy
-gender equality
-democracy
3
Q
economic development: What is GNI?
A
- GNI is measure of all money, goods, services and investments that come or stay in the country (per capita, per person)
- gross national income is the value of all income produced by a country’s residents (both citizens and foreign residents) within all geographic boundaries, plus net receipts of income (wages, salary and property income) from abroad.
-However, some sociologists use GNI with caution and see issues with it as a development indicator.
4
Q
What are the issues of using GNI as a sole indicator of development?
A
- economic growth does not cover social improvements
- GNI is an average. Very rich people in a country will skew the poorest GNI and hide inequalities within an economy
-GNI only includes the official economy, informal work is not included, often stereotypically the work of women, it could be argued there is a gender bias - continuous economic growth does not automatically mean it is sustainable (resources can run out)
- lacks reliability; it is hard to accurately measure GNI
5
Q
What are some commonly used measures of development?
A
- education - percentage of school aged children attending school and literacy
- health - child and infant mortality rates, maternal mortality rates, number of doctors and hospitals to the population
- democracy - free and fair elections, eligibility
- gender equality - differences in male to female education, health, politics and more
6
Q
what is the HDI (human development index)?
A
it is a composite and uses a combination of economic and social development - 1 economic and 2 social , lower the value (furthest from 1) , the less developed
7
Q
what are the 3 things that the United Nations Development Programme (UNPD) measure when looking at the development of a country?
A
- material standard of living (GNI per capita)
- education (leaving age and literacy rates)
- health (life expectancy)
8
Q
advantages of using the Human development index
A
easy to compare between countries, as it is more quantitative
mix of different factors, not just economic
9
Q
one problem with using the Human Development Index
A
it doesn’t give detail into why these countries may not be as developed, just states that they are.
10
Q
Why is it useful to compare the GNI and HDI of nations?
A
It allows us to see what areas need more focus on economic differences and social differences, allowing us to see what areas need more attention in certain ways and whether the money is being put in the right places - high HDI but low GNI suggests that they are putting it in the right places
11
Q
what is the gross national happiness?
A
In 1972, the King of Bhutan, in response to criticism of the slow economic growth in his country, came up with a plan that rejected the pursuit of economic growth, but rather reflected his Bhudist values. The Gross national happiness index takes into account spiritual and psychological aspects of development
12
Q
what is happy planet index?
A
created by the New economics foundation, gives a score to countries with smaller ecological footprints. It also includes well-being and life expectancy.
Costa Rica was at the top of this index in 2014
13
Q
what is good country index?
A
this measure tries to quantify the contribution that each country makes to “the common good of humanity”, rather than their own leaders, businesses and citizens
14
Q
what is multidimensional poverty index?
A
a new measure that replaced the human poverty index, looking at poverty as multidimensional and looks at measures of health, education and living standards
15
Q
what is gender equality index?
A
this measures the disadvantage faced by girls and women in reproductive health, empowerment and participation in the labour market
16
Q
what is inequality - adjusted human development index ?
A
if a country’s people are all equal, its IHDI is the same as the HDI, if not, the IDHI goes down. The difference can be given as a percentage.
17
Q
what were the Millennium development goals: a set of eight development goals adopted by the UN in 2000 to be achieved by 2015?
A
eradicate extreme poverty and hunger
achieve universal primary education
promote gender equality and the power of women
reduce child mortality
improve maternal health
combat HIV/ AIDS, malaria and other diseases
ensure environmental sustainability
develop a global partnership for development
18
Q
How do we measure poverty?
A
the UN uses absolute poverty, which means living on less than $1.25 a day as part of their goal
this is in contrast to relative poverty, poverty compared to others globally, nationally or locally
after 2015, the sustainable development goals were set
19
Q
what is meant by the three worlds
A
this definition dates back to the cold war and is one of the conventional ways of separating countries in the world
first world: the industrialised, capitalised countries of the world - USA, England, Japan, Australia, New zealand
second world: the industrialised, communist countries of the world: the soviet union and other eastern european countries
third world: the rest of the world, central and south america, africa, asia
first and second world are used much less than third world
after the collapse of the soviet union, we saw a huge decline in the use of second world countries and even divide in third world countries - the non aligned movement became much less important
20
Q
what is meant by the north and south
A
the developed, industrialised countries are mainly in the northern hemisphere and the poorer, undeveloped countries are more in the southern hemisphere
known as the north and south from the 1970s onwards
the distinction was used by Brandt Commision in the 1980s in an attempt to give suggestions on how to reduce poverty
21
Q
what is meant by the MEDC’S, LEDC’s and LLEDC’S
A
MEDCS stands for more economically developed countries
LEDCS stands for less economically developed countries
LLEDCS stands for least economically developed countries
22
Q
what is meant by the developed, undeveloped and underdeveloped
A
the difference between undeveloped and underdeveloped countries is up to interpretation
undeveloped suggests that the poor country has not experienced progress
underdeveloped suggests that the poor world has been made poor due to the exploitation of the rich
23
Q
what is meant by the Majority and Minority worlds
A
a more recent attempt to describe the world but it is not as widespread. Majority refers to the third world and the fact that 2⁄3 or more of the world live here
minority refers to the rich, drawing attention to how difficult it is to be a part of this group
24
Q
what is meant by the bottom billion
A
originally used by the economist Paul Collier (2007), it is a term used to acknowledge that many parts of what were once “third world countries” have achieved some level of development
he says that the reason why certain countries like in africa is because they have been affected by things like war
he argues that countries like china and india that are achieving levels of development, will soon bring economic growth on social indicators so there needs to be more focus on the countries that do not have this potential.
25
what is modernisation theory?
Modernisation theory is the dominant developmental theory of the 1960’s based on factors internal to third world countries inhibiting their own development.
26
what are the aims of modernisation theory?
- Attempts to explain why poorer countries have failed to develop by focusing on the process of development i.e. how traditional societies could evolve into modern developed societies
- A non-communist solution to poverty in the developing world by proposing that economic change (in the form of capitalism) and cultural change could play a critical role in bringing about modernisation.
27
who is the theorist associated with modernisation theory?
WW Rostow was best associated with modernisation theory. The theory heavily relates to the Cold War period when the USA offered reasons to newly independent countries why they should ally themselves with the West and not with the Soviet Union.
28
what does Talcott Parsons say about underdeveloped countries?
they are too attached to traditional practices, customs, and rituals.
things like religious values that stress patriarchy, ascription, particularism and fatalism can prevent change
29
what is egoism according to durkheim?
self-interest as the foundation of morality and one's individual actions.
30
what is alturism according to durkheim?
viewing society as more real than themselves. will take part in self sacrificing actions to help the group survive
31
what is the trickle down effect?
the idea that the money from the wealthier countries will eventually trickle down to the poorer countries
32
what are the social obstacles?
- Social systems that impede social mobility
- Acceptance of new work patterns
33
what are the main assessts of a modern society?
- Educational opportunity
- Individual freedom
-Rule of law
34
To what extent is modernisation theory relevant today?
- Like functionalism, tends to be dismissed as no longer relevant, yet it laid the foundations, for example:
- Communism - proved not to be a good way to achieve development. China’s economic growth been achieved through capitalism. Many developing nations aspire to western standards of growth and consumption.
- Aid between rich and poor continues (Morocco and Libya current examples)
- India/China at ‘take-off’ in late 1950s - 60 years to maturity?
35
What was Hoselitz’s view on modernisation theory?
education is most important as it should speed up the introduction of Western values such as universalism, individualism, competition and achievement measured by examinations. This was seen as a way of breaking the link between family and children
36
what is dependancy theory?
a sociological theory which holds that economic events in history have encouraged developing countries to depend upon the support of more advanced nations.
Where modernisation theory comes clearly from the developed world, dependency theory takes the perspective of developing countries, seen as a ‘view from the south’, based on Latin American economies.
37
who was Andre Gunder Frank and what did he argue?
The main proponent of dependency theory and argued underdevelopment paved the way for the development of the West.
38
what are the key ideas of dependency
- The reason these places are poor and under-developed are because of the structure of exploitation, capitalism and world trade.
- Modernisation tends to forget the historic experience of the Third World. (External rather than internal factors).
- The rich countries benefit from the under-developed ones, by means of cheap labour and raw materials.
- They want nationalism and self-reliance from under-developed countries, not reliance on Aid
39
what is the first stage of exploitation of ‘third world’ countries beginning
Stage 1: Mercantile Capitalism;
essentially in the 15th and 16th centuries Europeans went all over the world trading goods and selling them back in Europe for loads more than they were worth.
This saw the beginning of the Triangular trade, the slave trade, from Europe, West Africa and the Americas.
40
what is the second stage of exploitation of ‘third world’ countries beginning
Stage 2: Colonialism
- Many western european countries such as the UK and France decided to take direct control of lands rather than just violently trade with them.
- These places were exploited for extra cheap goods, and local industry was destroyed so that it wouldn’t become competition.
Everything was turned into money so that the workers could pay taxes through their wages.
41
what is the third stage of exploitation of ‘third world’ countries beginning
Stage 3: Neo-colonialism
- Most colonies gained independence in mid twentieth century.
Although colonisers gave up direct political control, they did not give up economic control and these countries continued to be economically dependent.
- These newly independent countries struggled to become stable as they had no tradition of self-rule or democracy and few entrepreneurs.
- They were locked into a one-sided relationship with developed countries e.g. exporting cash crops.
- The borders between countries, particularly in Africa, were fixed by colonial powers and do not correspond to where different groups of people live thus leading to conflict.
- They became dependent on aid, continued to be underdeveloped and remained in a state of dependency.
42
what are the core features of neoliberalism?
- political and economic policies on unrestricted free markets and free trades - foundation for human flourishing
- government interference with free trade is a bad thing
- industries, high taxing is a bad thing
-shrinking the size of government
- individual failings lead to social inequality
- people should have the freedom for their own change and growth
- Neoliberalism insists that developing countries remove obstacles to free market capitalism, and allow capitalism to generate development. The argument is that, if allowed to work freely, capitalism will generate wealth which will trickle down to everyone
43
what are the positives of neoliberalism?
- with no trade tariff or duties, a wide choice of goods can be bought worldwide at a low cost
-transnational corporations freely invest overseas due to skilled workforces and no trade barriers
- promotes entrepreneurship and competitive businesses
44
what are the criticisms of neoliberalism?
- policies do not mitigate social inequalities
- remove safety nets provided by governments
- fails to account for structural forms of violence - structural poverty, racism
- declining governments power and influence due to increased TNC power (trans national cooperations)
- poor countries have to repay all historical debt, with interest
now being surpassed by “post- neoliberalism” ideas of greater government spending
45
what are the stages of the multiplier effect?
- due to economic growth, immigration to an area increases
- this makes more TNCS want to invest
- this creates more jobs
-this leads to higher levels of consumption
-this leads to economic growth
46
who emphasised laissez-faire and what is it?
- milton Friedman and Peter Baur influenced economic policy of Thatcherism and Reaganism - laissez-faire (leave economic forces to do what they will or the economy will be damaged)
47
what was Freidman's argument?
- government should not be involved in the economy except four main functions:
1. defence
2. law and order
3. the provision of the necessary public works that private enterprise does not find profitable to provide
4. protection from members of the community who “cannot be regarded as “responsible individuals”
48
Baur (british development economist) argument
- Baur advocates a wider range of functions for governments:
- the basic health and education
- management of the monetary and fiscal (taxation/spending) system
- strongly criticised government-to-government aids as neither necessary not efficient. he argued that it posed the danger of promoting government power, destroying economic incentives as well as eroding civic initiatives and dynamism
49
Friedman and Bauer argue that:
- the production, distribution and trade of good and services are best left to private (profit making) rather than public (government owned and regulated) organisations
- the free market will regulate itself and lead to increased economic growth e.g as in Hong Kong (low taxes and fee port trade)
- government central planning fails to raise living standards
- but critics say this is not the case with sweden and former soviet union which have not been successful
50
what is the theory impasse (Boothe 1985) ?
1980s - modernization and dependency theories unable to adequately explain how the world was changing
the end of the cold war and globalisation (close connections around the world) added to this
key reasons:
- the failure of development
- post modernism
- globalisation
- environmentalism
51
what is the failure of development in terms of the theory impasse?
in the 1960s and 1970s, most developing countries made some progress towards economic growth, as well as development on social issues like literacy and life expectancy. However, the following decade saw a slow down and even reversal of this development, making the 1980s the “lost decade”. Modernisation could not explain the failure to take off, while dependency theory could not explain the changes that were happening - eg end of communism
52
what is postmodernism in terms of the theory impasse?
postmodernist ideas began to undermine the “meta narratives”, not only marxists . but the very idea of development. Postmodernists argued that development and the development theories carried assumptions about social evolution and progress, were based on westernised ideas. this lead to the idea of “post development”
53
what is globalisation in terms of the theory impasse?
at first, not all social scientists accepted the idea of globalisation. But, the concept opened up new debates that increasingly overlapped with debates about development.
54
what is environmentalism in terms of the theory impasse?
there was a growing concern that development meant industrialisation, which would cause environmental damage and would not be sustainable
55
what is people-centred development and environmentalism?
- large scale (top - down) government projects weren’t lifting people out of poverty. they argued that development should be based on:
- sustainability
- participation
- justice
- meeting people’s basic needs
- small - scale, run by NGOs (non governmental organisations), decided on by local communities. NGOs grew and money channelled to them instead of governments
- fits in with neoliberalism - reduced government spending / role of government
56
People centred development can improve life BUT…
- unlikely to life a whole country out of poverty
- can be seen as a means for government to evade responsibility
57
how is a focus on environmentalism thought to help?
- environmentalist approach to development focuses on sustainability
- sustainable development a widely accepted term, however, environmentalists argue the economic growth is not sustainable and what is needed is “degrowth” - a reduction in production and consumption
- leads to increased happiness and well being
58
what is Escobar's theory on post modernisation?
- the post development school of though points out that the previous models of development (modernisation, neoliberal and to some extent dependency) are often ethnocentric based on western models of industrialization that are unsustainable in this world of limited resources and ineffective for their ignorance of the local, cultural and historical contexts of the peoples to which they are applied
- In essence, the problem post development theorists see in development and its practice is an imbalance of influence or domination by the west.
- Post development theorists promote more pluralisms in ideas about development
- The rich cannot lift the poor out of poverty, local communities need to address their own problems using their own ideas.
- People have to develop themselves, rather than relying on ill - suited ideas from overseas
59
what are some positives of post modernisation theory?
- countries do not have to develop according to western ideas
- local communities could be empowered by creating their own development ideas
- developing countries do not have to follow the cultural and moral guidance of development donors
- data shows that absolute poverty has been halved
60
what are some negatives of post modernisation theory?
- provides limited practical alternatives to replace overseas assistance
- the poorest of the poor will struggle to meet their basic needs in the short term
61
waht are the main features of world system theories?
- neo marxist theory
- Wallerstein argued that there were levels of both exploitation and dependency in a new world system - interdependence between core, periphery and semi periphery
- core nations are dominant, industrialised, capitalist nations
- peripheral nations are the poorests nations, lacking in economic and social infrastructure
- semi peripheral takes elements at both - newly industrialised countries
- states that semi peripheral are exploited by the core, but exploit the peripheral
- core nations benefit from selling good to the other nations - many westernised TNCs will run private health and education systems
- the semi peripheral nations sell consumer goods and exploit the cheap labour and resources
62
how does world system theory link to other theories?
- it was developed in response to the criticisms of dependency theory by Immanuel Wallerstein
- dependency theory only examined two types of nations - metropolis and satellite - and assumed dependency of poorer nations on the wealthy
- the key difference is the exploitation that happens to and by the semi peripheral
63
what are the solutions proposed by world system theory?
- developed relationship between different nations - a criticism of dependency theory
- defined the extent of dependency that nations have upon each other, something that dependency theory failed to do
explained historical significance of colonialism and
- industrialisation as modern world systems evolve- nations can move up and down the hierarchy
64
what are the criticisms of world system theory?
- offers few alternatives to existing levels of capitalism
f- ails to acknowledge the control that the core nations put in place to maintain their position
- based upon economic means of development only,not holistic
- core, semi - periphery and periphery are abstract concepts that cannot be measured.
65
What is globalisation?
- the interconnection of the world in terms of time and space. It has been made possible, among other things by the spread of free market capitalism
- started at the end of the cold war and collapse of soviet union in 1989, Add in rapid changes in communication technology, this made the possible of free market capitalism
- this has been then imposed on many developing countries though structural adjustment plans (SAPs) and pressure to get debt relief
66
How does globalisation relate to the companies at the start?
- these companies are all TNCs or transnational corporations
- this relates to the process by which businesses or other organisations develop international influence or start operating on an international scale
67
Globalisation and capitalism or free market
- When consider globalisation to create greater inequalities within and between nations, then can consider “alternative globalisation”
- includes global movements and developments like fair trade, gender equality, human rights, spread of demands for greater political freedom (e.g arab spring in 2011)
- therefore globalisation isn’t just economic but has political and cultural dimensions as well
68
political globalisation
- writers assume that as capitalism spreads, so will the political system of liberal democracy to ensure a free and fair election
- there are fewer dictatorships around the world and elections are closely observed
- nation states become less important than TNCs
69
what is global decision making?
states acting together and making decisions at a global level
70
economic globalisation
- new international division of labour - the new global economic order said to be produced by factory production moving from the developed world to some developing countries.
- NIDL replaced the traditional division of labour which had been established in the colonial periods
- they can be misleading because many poor countries still heavily depend on exporting foods and raw materials while rich countries still have some manufacturing industries
- in the 1970's manufacturers moved away from developed countries, to developing countries
71
cultural globalisation
- there is a dynamic between economics, values and culture that tends to accelerate globalization
examples:
- world sport
- world tourism
72
what are the stages of Mcdonaldisation?
efficiency
calculability
predictability
control
73
what is mcdonaldisation?
Mcdonaldization is the process of culture and society taking on the principles of fast food chains like mcdonalds, local cultures soon become highly westernised under cultural hybridization. It was first used by George Ritzer in his book “the mcdonaldization of society” in 1991 and is a process that focuses on rationality on logic and replaces traditions and value with calculated behaviour
74
what are the criticisms of mcdonaldisation?
- McDonaldization does not require a skilled workforce. Focusing on the four key characteristics that produce McDonaldization has eliminated the need for skilled workers
- it has lead to an increase in free consumer labour
- it has lead to a process of dehumanizing workers
- it has caused a decrease in the quality of wider societal things like education as quantity is valued much more
75
what is the neoliberalism view on globalisation?
- See globalisation as the worldwide extension of capitalism or, the free market
- This leads to economic growth, eradication of poverty, and spread of democracy all around the world
- Countries that are embracing the global free market are the ones where development is happening now
- Globalisation spreads benefits of capitalism around the world
- Allowing people to use their entrepreneurial skills by liberalising markets will produce wealth that will ‘trickle down’ to the whole population
76
what is the radical view on neoliberalism?
- the spread of capitalism is seen as a negative thing and is not environmentally sustainable
- widens the gap between the rich and the poor
- seen as cultural imperialism ( imposition of western values)
- destroys local culture
77
what is the transnationalist view of globalisation?
- globalisation is unstoppable
- it is possible for individuals to reject the negative aspect of globalization and embrace the positive
- hybridization is actually seen as creating more diveristy, even when it comes ot things like mcdonalidzation
- leads to glocalisation ( intertwining of global and local culture) and reverse cultural flow
- globalization is transofrming the hierarchy of north nad south into first and third world countries
78
How far has economic globalisation gone?
- There are still many national companies, and even the largest corporations have clear national bases, so there are more MNCs than TNCs.
- Even if national governments have less control over their economics than in the past, regional governments can provide protection for workers and insist on things like basic human rights, minimising TNCs' power.
- Hirt and Thompson argue that economic globalisation is a myth and we are still much closer to the place of having nation states which control the direction taken by the world economy
- They see no real evidence for economic globalisation and highlight the economic downturn since 2008
79
How far has political globalisation gone?
- governments still have the ability to influence developments - it is national governments that are entering in the agreements that create national organisation - they still have influence over taxes, wages and war
- More and more countries are using liberal ideology and democracy to stay in power - for example dictators such as Robert Mugabe in Zimbabwe can claim democracy and election, even though there has been very little change there.
- Despite priding itself on democracy, US dismisses the lack of democracy in any of its allies
- However, we are seeing a decline in dictatorships
- People become more active in global politics
80
How far has cultural globalisation gone?
- western and American culture is evident all over the world
- migration of people encourages the spread of culture
- western culture can be seen as degrading local culture
- globalisation can often unsettle people so they chose to return to their original values - this can hold them only back from globalisation
81
what does Sklair beleive about TNCs?
the winners are the “transnational capitalist class” (Sklair) - who are no longer tied to national boundaries
82
what do neoliberalists believe about who benefits from globalisation?
Neoliberalists argue that the poor only miss out because they are not yet sufficiently integrated.
83
what do transnationalists Cohen and Kennedy argue about who wins with globalisation?
Cohen and Kennedy argue that globalisation has created both “global winners” who have increased their power and global losers who are missing out
84
what is a darker aspect of globalisation?
- terror attacks having the ability to operate and organize globally
- instance like 9/11 cause pressure nad hatred towards countried and globalisation
85
what does Kunstler (2005) argue
that there is nothing inevitable about globalisation and that it is coming to a close. and the factors that globalisation was based around :the peace of the cold war and cheap industrial products are fading
86
what does Saul argue about globalsiation ?
globalsiation reached its peak in the mid 1990s with the formation of World Trade organisation but has been challenged by countries gaining more independance
87
what is an actor in terms of nation states?
those that have a role i.e TNC,NGO, nation state. sometimes called “stakeholders”
87
what is a nation state?
a sovereign state of which most of the citizens or subjects are united also by factors which define a nation, such as language or common descent.
88
How can nation states claim power in the new world of globalisation?
- conflict
- negotiating
- loans
89
How can states be successful agents of their own development?
- they have the ability to control and make changes to the free market
- state run industries are large and encourage high levels of employment
90
How can states be unsuccessful agents of their own development?
- they make it hard to achieve a sense of national identity
- they are set up for control rather than improving living standards and developing
- they are fading and TNCs are having much more power
states can often be corrupt and prevent development of the country to ensure their best
- governments of developing countries make it difficult to develop as they have such little money to spend
91
what are TNCs ?
- Transnational corporations (TNCs) are businesses that have a global reach. They are companies that operate in more than one country
-they operate (produce and sell) in more than one country
- they aim to maximise profits and lower costs
- they are responsible for 80% of global trade
- 69 of the richest 100 entities in the world are TNCs rather than countries
92
how can TNCs be successful agents of development ?
- they bring in lots of investment where local countries do not have the capability
-they trained workers they need can raise the aspirations of those in a country
- they provide more opportunities for women
- they bring in modern values like gender equality to countries who may not have had it before
- they will pay for developing infrastructure that will develop a country
-they encourage international trade and open up new markets
93
how can TNCs be unsuccessful agents of development?
- they live to be profitable for the people who run them, they do not have the country’s interests at heart
- the exploitation of workers - conditions and pay is often low and they often do things like employ children, reject trade unions, make overtime compulsory etc
- countries will purposely exploit their citizens to attract TNCs
- Kerngahan - a race to the bottom
- the damage to the environment has a negative effect on both a local and global level
- they may do things like sell out of date goods, waste things that are perfectly fine and market things like smoking to benefit their own economy
- jobs often go to expats rather than the locals
- products are mostly for the west
- little loyalty and will use their resources and leave if they are not good enough
- bio piracy - they will patent traditional and local goods
94
what are some examples of people have resistance to globalisation?
- anti immigration laws
- groups like the EDL
- resisting the influence of American or Western culture
- countries wanting to gain independance
- countries wanting to go back to their native language
95
what are the key features of a NGO
- non governmental organisation
- better the environment and general health and rights
- private, independent organisations
- government is not involved
- obey by the principle of humanity
- they have neutrality
- they get funding from governments, but don’t work with them
96
what are the strengths of NGOs?
1. Local people can be involved in the projects
2. Smaller scale work which can be acted upon quickly
3. Continuity (unlike government and elections)
4. Able to take risks
5. Responsive donors who they rely on for money
97
what are the limitations of NGOs ?
1. Working too closely with government or relying on government money
2. Links to TNCs
3. Portraying people in poorer countries as victims
4. Unclear accountability
5. Faith based NGOs can be more focused on conversion
6. Too concerned with public image
7. Inappropriate spending, e.g. flying in experts with little knowledge
98
what is an IGO?
The term intergovernmental organisation (IGO) refers to an entity created by treaty, involving two or more nations, to work in good faith, on issues of common interest.
99
100
what is the main purpose of IGOs?
The main purposes of IGOs were to create a mechanism for the world’s inhabitants to work more successfully together in the areas of peace and security, and also to deal with economic and social questions.
101
Which from the organisations do you think are the most and least significant for helping with global development?
i think that the UN is the most significant and the International Monetary fund is the least important because they only focus on economic development whereas the UN focus on so many aspects
102
Why can the role IGOs play in development be seen as controversial?
because they may been seen as taking over and trying ot forced western development on countries that may not want it
103
what is aid?
the flow of resources from developed countries to developing countries which may take the form of:
- a financial grant or material gift which does not have to be paid back
- a loan with interest which has to be repaid.
104
what are the 3 types of aid?
1. Bilateral aid
2. Multilateral aid
3. NGOs
105
what is bilateral aid
Bilateral aid is where a government gives direct financial capital to another government typically from a developed country to a developing country.
106
what is multilateral aid
Multilateral aid is where a country is given assistance by international organisations (IGOs) such as the International Monetary Fund
107
what is humanitarian aid
Humanitarian aid is where NGOs give support and direct financial donations. They get money from the public.
108
what is an argument that supports aid?
- modernisation theory argues that developed countries can provide aid in the form of capital, expertise or technology as a helping hand, but they must be prepared to accept western values
- Jeffrey Sachs (2005) argues for a big push of large - scale focused and integrated aid to lift developing countries out of poverty
- aid has helped in many ways including:
- Gives foundations for a country or population to work on.
Boosts or injections into a country can allow support and can also create growth.
- Saves lives through supply of food and water
- Help countries gain a fairer and efficient government.
- Collier (2007) argues that while aid is only a partial solution to the problems the bottom billion face, international laws are needed to regulate TNC’s but without aid their prospects would be worse.
- there is an argument that even attempting to provide aid is beneficial and that if aid can improve life chances, it is good
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what is an argument against aid - the neoliberal view: aid creates dependency
- aid is seen as teaching countries to be reliant on handouts, rather than to be self sufficient.
- countries are seen as poor because of their own failings, such as laziness, corruption and inefficiency and giving aid does not overcome these failings, but rather encourages them
- Third world countries are seen as “scroungers” who need aid just at the right time and are then trapped in a cycle of dependency
- Baurer argues that aid could not possibly be for development, as already developed countries did not have aid as they were developing
- aid goes to third world governments, not people and that the term “aid” is seen to make them look good
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what is an argument against aid - neo marxist view: aid as imperialism
- Theresea Hayter argues that aid is conditional and nearly always comes with strings attached
- it is done to remind them of their power over the underdeveloped country
- most aid isn’t done to alleviate poverty, but rather strengthen the system that enforces it
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Why are there issues with foreign aid?
- aid is often mismanaged
- there are too many delays
- corruption
- lack of good governance
- Foreign Aid Can Create a Dependency
- too much aid is wasted
- There Is a Lack of Localisation
- Aid Is Not Provided Where It’s Needed Most
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what is the social democratic view on aid
- aid can work, but it is often inappropriate or inefficient
- this is not an objection to all aid, but it is recognition that much -
- aid is misdirected and abused, and a desire to see it used well
- examples of aid that have not contributed:
- aid that supports corrupt governments
- aid that supports the armed forces
- projects that do more harm than good
- projects that cause harm to the environment
- projects that employ highly paid foreign experts who have little
- knowledge of the locals
-projects based on ignorance
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What is the debt crisis?
refers to the inability (and sometimes refusal) of indebted countries to pay interest on loans or to the original loan. debts repayment holds back development by diverting money and resources
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What happened between the 1970s and 1980s that impacted debt?
In the 1970s, banks loaned money to third world countries and due to the influence of modernization theory, many people believed that if they were helped, the poorer countries would quickly develop and begin to catch up with the rich.
third world countries took the money believing in would help cause economic growth
some of the money lent went into the pockets of dictators and a lot was spent on arms, but some went to the people
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What is the debt boomerang? What theorist introduced it?
George introduced the term “debt boomerang” arguing that debt was also creating problems for the north, and that action on debt was in the interest of the north as well as being ethically desirable.
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Outline what the six boomerangs of debt are in one sentence each.
environment - people in developing countries are forced by debt to exploit their natural resources in the most profitable and least sustainable way
unemployment - if the indebted countries were better off, they would be able and willing to buy from developing countries, so jobs have been lost for a lack of markets
drugs - for some countries in debt, there is a huge market for illegal drugs but they have social and economic costs
migration - many flee poverty by moving north or other nearby rich countries
taxes - people in developed countries pay taxes to give banks concessions so they can right off bad debts
war - debt creates social unrest and can lead to war.
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What is the HIPC?
refers to a system by which heavily indebted countries can apply to have debt written off provided that they keep conditions
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What is the argument for debt not being cancelled?
moral hazard - a term used in the insurance industry referring to when people are not held responsible for what goes wrong as the result of the decisions that they have made
cancelling debts rewards those countries did not use the money well
cancelling debt would leave organisation like the world debt without funding
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What is the argument for cancelling debt?
increase in debt loans will probably lead to a debt crisis
should people be expected to pay back loans that didn’t benefit them
Is it their fault if a dictator spends a loan wrong?
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what is trade?
trade is a voluntary exchange of good or services between different economic actors
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according to the UN conference, how much is spent on trade and development?
$28.5 trillion
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in 2020, who was the largest source of goods exposed around the world, with $2.6 trillion
China
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how does trade help with development?
enhnaced trade is likely to lead to redcued poverty.
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what things can trade provide for people?
jobs
access to new technologies
reduces pricing - especially for the poor
trade is ethical, moral and rational
wealth is more evenly distributed
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according to the world bank, how can trade reduce poverty?
- Opening up to trade increases a country’s GDP because it allows each country to use its resources more efficiently by specialising in the production of the goods and services that it can produce more cheaply, while importing the others
- Trade also provides better access to external markets for the goods that the poor produce. Understanding these channels helps us trace through the impact that trade can have on the extreme poor
- Trade contributes directly to poverty reduction by opening up new employment opportunities, for example for agricultural producers
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what are disadvantages of trade?
impact on the environment
exploitation
if trade falls apart, there may be conflict
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what is the neoliberal view of trade?
Neoliberalism insists that governments in developing countries need to remove obstacles to free trade and free market capitalism in order to generate development
The theory is that if governments allow businesses the freedom to ‘do business’, wealth will be generated which will trickle down to everyone.
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what does friedman (2000) say about trade?
argues that globalisation has occurred because of the global adoption of neoliberal economic policies.
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What does modernisation say about trade?
- Modernisation Theory and Neoliberalism both argue that developing countries need to increase their share of world trade (export and import more) in order to develop
- modernization theory prefers aid to encourage trade, whereas neoliberalism is suspicious of aid, believing that poor countries should move straight to opening up the markets to attract TNC investment.
- Modernisation theory argues that increasing trade with other countries is a crucial part of ‘climbing the ladder of development’.
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what does dependency theory say about trade?
free trade involves unequal relationships between the rich countries and the poor countries
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what does post modernism say about trade ?
trade is systematically set up to benefit and impose Western views on poorer countries
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what is industrialisation?
industrialisation is where a country moves from an economy dominated by agricultural output and employment to one dominated by manufacturing. This will usually involve the establishment of factories in which things are produced in a rationally organised (efficient) manner.
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What was the historical industrial revolution?
- the initial, first change to urbanisation
- boosted trade
- less farm workers were needed
- poor living conditions
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how does industrialisation have an effect on education
Industrialisation requires an educated workforce (at least some workers – management – need to be educated) which encourages the government to invest in education.
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how does industrialisation lead to urbanisation
workers flock to factories to find work
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Why do countries that want to develop industrialise?
convenience to allow them to spend more time on other things
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How did non-western countries industrialise?
- private companies were allowed into the country, along with foreigh investment
- opening up to other countries - following in the footsteps of modern countires - modernisation
- state influences of trade - modernisation thoery would not support this
- lack of environmental focus
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how does industrialisation affect economy ?
- increased labor specialization and allowed cities to support larger populations, motivating a rapid demographic shift
- improved trade
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how does industrialisation affect employment
- workers are pulled out of low productivity agriculture to manufacturing, leading to both an increase in overall productivity in the economy as well as an increase in the share of workers employed in better paid jobs
- increased wealth gap between the rich and the poor
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how does industrialisation affect transport
- increased transporting capacity
- better roads and railways
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how does industrialisation affect major exports
- Industrialisation increases economic gains when engaging in international trade. Industrialisation means a nation can produce a variety of higher-value goods that can then be sold as exports or used within internal markets.
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how does industrialistion affect Urban or rural populations
- new industrialised jobs draw people to the city, increasing the population there adn decreasing the rural population
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how does industrialisation affect involvement from TNCS
- more people working from them
- more produce
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what is urbanisation ?
The process through which cities grow, and higher and higher percentages of the population comes to live in the city.
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what are push factors?
factors that push someone away from living somewhere
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what are pull factors?
factors that pull someone towards living somewhere
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What are some of the positive and negative impacts of urbanisation for development?
overcrowding
poverty
lack of clean water
community
social responsibility
high disease exposure
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how does urbanisation affect gender ?
greater independence and opportunity for women
there are also high risks of violence and constraints on employment
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how does urbanisation affect employment?
more likely to be employed by the informal sector
jobs are created in cities when firms are located closer to other firms, the labour market, and potential clients
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how does urbansiation affect conflict?
urbanisation often causes competition for land resources between urban and rural areas
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how does urbanisation affect Education?
Urban schools are usually larger, enjoy greater responsibility for resource allocation, are less likely to experience staff shortages, are more likely to have a higher proportion of qualified teachers, and have higher student-teacher ratios than schools in rural areas and towns, especially in partner countries
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how does urbanisation affect The Environment
Habitat loss is the greatest threat to biodiversity. Urbanisation not only destroys and fragments habitats but also alters the environment itself. For example, deforestation and fragmentation of forest lands lead to the degradation and loss of forest interior habitat as well as creating forest edge habitat.
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how does urbanisation affect industrialisation ?
urbanisation led to a massive increase in the number of factories and manufacturing facilities.
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what is sustainable development?
"Sustainable development is development that meets the needs of the present, without compromising the ability of future generations to meet their own needs.“
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what is appropriate development?
’Appropriate development means the appropriateness to the context (culture, economics, and environment) in all manners of development. Locals must take over development in developing countries, and they must do so without the use of Western capital, to avoid overexploitation of the environment.’
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what are Brundtland Commission (UN, 1987) environmental policies
The United Nations created the Brundtland Commission to establish policies and agreements on environmental issues and reform.
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what are the main points of the Brundtland Commission
- Global economic development must be compatible with the environment.
- Sustainable development must be supported and embraced when possible.
- Poverty is a problem and the generator of environmental issues, like global warming.
- More equitable economic relationships between developing and developed countries must be adopted so that the developing world doesn't need to overuse its environmental resources.
- In the 1990s, 178 UN nations agreed to aim for sustainable development.
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info about deforestation:
loss of habitat
increases greenhouse gases
less water in the atmosphere
Honduras - only 16% of its original forest cover remaining
Over 420 million hectares of forest have been lost since 1990
99% of Haiti’s Native Forests Have Been Cut Down
95% of Deforestation Happens in the Tropics
75% of Tropical Rainforests Have Lost Resilience
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info about Desertification
the degradation process by which a fertile land changes itself into a desert by losing its flora and fauna
Loss of biodiversity
decrease in drinking water reserves
Food insecurity due to crop failure
Increased risk of zoonotic diseases
The loss of vegetation cover
2 billion people live on the drylands that are vulnerable to desertification
100 countries are threatened by desertification
Ethiopia the world’s most vulnerable country to desertification
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info about pollution
Acid rain.
Hazards to wildlife
Ozone depletion
85% of all global air pollution comes from burning fossil fuels
Air pollution kills an estimated seven million people worldwide every year.
Less than 1% of global land area has safe air pollution levels
chad has the world pollution levels
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info about species distinction
animals that ate the newly-extinct species have to find new food sources or starve.
If pollinators go extinct, plant health falls
if a predator goes extinct, its prey’s population can proliferate, unbalancing local ecosystems.
loss of global biodiversity
As of 2022, Madagascar was the country with the most endangered species
between 0.01 and 0.1% of all species will become extinct each year
More than 99 percent of all organisms that have ever lived on Earth are extinct
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what do neoliberals beleive about environmental issues
environmental issues can be solved by extending the free market. even if capitalism caused environmental problems, it has the capability to solve them - for example cost rises
critics argue this will just affect the poor
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waht do modernisation theorists believe about environmetal issues
concerned with the effects of population growth in developing countries and the effects this has on the environment and how they use it in the short term
dependency theory says this is because of an unequal global system
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what do dependancy theorists beleive about environmetnal issues
some of those who damage the planet are the richest in the world as they consume more - resources are used to benefit consumers in the north
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evidence that governments/nation states are to blame for environmental issues
US secretary of state, repeatedly argued that cutting oil use to fight climate change would make poverty reduction harder
Power differences between countries also play a strong role in the outcomes of international climate talks
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evidence that TNCs cause environmental issues
In 2015, an investigation by US website InsideClimate News revealed that the oil firm Exxon knew about climate change for decades
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evidence that individuals cause environmental issues
the richest 10% of people consume around 20 times more energy than the poorest 10%
in the pandemic daily global CO2 emissions fell 17% compared with 2019 level
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what is the difference between war and conflict?
War is the hostility towards other parties issued officially by governments/states. War is ‘declared’ officially, often widespread and international.
Conflicts are part of war, though not every war sees actual conflict, nor is every conflict connected to war. A conflict is a fight between armed troops and can lead to bombings or other issues.
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what are some examples of old wars?
"Total wars" - involved entire countries
Public confrontations - occurred on battlefields
Based on ideological differences - e.g. democracy vs. fascism, capitalism vs. communism
Alliances between nations, e.g. NATO vs. USSR
Mass production of weapons
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How have wars changed over time? Kaldor (2006)
Kaldor states that in modern times most wars are , are civil wars that occur overwhelmingly in some of the most underdeveloped and poorest nations. Kaldor calls these 'new wars'. According to Kaldor, these 'new wars' result from globalisation.
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what is involved in new wars?
Civil wars - internal conflicts between state and non-state actors
Different modes of warfare - control through other means than just physical combat, e.g. control through fear and terror. Think about how 'the war on terror' itself has been used.
Based on identity politics - e.g. ethnic, religious or tribal differences
Shadow economies - external to the internal 'civil war' are often other countries supporting either side through funding or the supply of arms
Effects of globalised culture - leaders are influenced by global media and levels of public outcry when considering the extent of their involvement
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- Although poverty can lead to war, so too does war create poverty, for a number of reasons:
- War is expensive, absorbing money that could be used for development.
- War destroys infrastructure that makes development possible: schools, hospitals and health centres and the roads and bridges that trade relies on.
- The human costs of war can be enormous – e.g. communities, families, homes and businesses are often destroyed, and people are left wounded and disabled as well as homeless.
- Unexploded munitions and landmines cause deaths and impede agriculture for many years after a war.
- Environmental costs can be very high, including damage by bombs and other arms that can destroy or cause harm to, for example, forests, wildlife, agricultural land, from which it may take years to recover. Such effects might be the direct result of explosions as well as due to the release of poisons in the air, water and land.
-Refugees are forced to use whatever is available to survive, resulting in further environmental damage – for example, they need to use any available wood for fires to keep warm, cook and boil water.
- Civil wars in one country can also contribute to poverty in neighbouring countries: conflict can easily spread across borders, trade is reduced and there will be refugees
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what do modernisation theorists believe about war and conflict
see war and conflict in developing countries as a part of the development process.
Civil wars are due to the 'traditional' beliefs and hierarchy systems present within developing countries.
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what do dependanct theorists believe about war adn conflict
‘development is ultimately impossible without stability and at the same time, security is not sustainable without development’. In other words, war impedes development.
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what is The Conflict Trap- Collier (2003)
the more impoverished a country is, the higher the likelihood of conflict.
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How does employment vary across the world?
- Sector (Primary-Quaternary)
- Hours worked
- Working conditions (Health and Safety)
- Composition of workers
- Education/skill needed
- Security
- Scale of business
- Distribution of profit
- Gender Bias
- Union representation
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what is involved in division of labour?
if you have workers who are specialised, and well as the input from containerisation, goods are able to be moved at a much faster rate and efficiency becomes much more important in the workplace
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what do Peet and Hardwick (2015) say about employment
observe that economic activity (work, labour, trade) has become globalized. There now exists a division of labour as TNCs increasingly outsource work that was once exclusively done in Western workplaces.
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what does Duffield (1999)
As a result of globalisation, jobs linked to certain economic activities may tend to diminish while jobs linked to certain other activities are created. This is due to changing competitive advantages and patterns of specialisation
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how many people are in the informal sector?
1.5 billion workers in the developing world in the informal sector. This type of work involves maintaining crops or livestock on family farms. It does not pay a wage but its economic value lies in the fact it ensures the family’s survival.
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What is the difference between the formal and informal economy?
the Formal Sector consists of jobs that have specific working hours and fixed wages; whereas, the Informal Sector is where the workers or employees don’t have fixed working hours and wages.
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Positives of working in the formal economy
often higher pay
more job security
protected by unions
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Negatives of working in the formal economy
often less focus on the needs of employees
have to pay taxes
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Positives of working in the informal economy
more control over hours and price
don’t have to pay taxes
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Negatives of working in the informal economy
less chance of stable income
not as protected
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Who is vulnerable participating in informal economies?
Children – Even where schooling is free, time spent in school is time that could be spent earning money, so many children may work rather than go to school.
Older people – The idea of retirement belongs to the formal sector, and there are unlikely to be state pensions.
People with disabilities – In the absence of state support, disabled people rely on family and community or may generate income by begging. In Sierra Leone’s civil war the rebels often cut off victims hands or feet. A priority for governments and NGOs has been to train victims in skills that will help them work.
Women - In some cultures it is unacceptable for women to work outside the home. Women are often reliant on husbands and fathers to earn money. For women alone, such as widows, making money can be very difficult. Even in the formal sector women are often taken advantage of, working for lower wages and in poor conditions.
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what do elson and pearson say about women and labour
Elson and Pearson (1981) showed how globalization led to many young women working in factories producing goods for export. This provided some financial independence but kept women subordinate with their supposedly limited skills (nimble fingers) justifying low wages.
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what does peet and hardwick say about women and labour
women are the new global working class pitted against financial and industrial capital that is male dominated’. 1.2 billion of the world’s 3 bn workers are women. P and H argue that global development has pushed women in poor countries into jobs that have changed their economic and social status.
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what is brain drain?
Dodani and LaPorte (2005) argue that brain drain is taking place as skilled workers from the developing world emigrate either legally or illegally to the developed world.
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what is some pull reasons for brain drain?
better jobs, a better quality of life, higher salaries and access to services like education and health.
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what does Sen argue about education?
Sen (1999) argues that education is essential both to increase human capability to make choices for ourselves because development is not possible without it.
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How does education link to development?
- education is the key to escaping poverty
-helps reduce gender inequality
- more tolerant and peaceful societies
- helps physical development, social-emotional development
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issues with education in LIC
- Countries do not have universal primary education.
- Teachers are not well paid and it is not an attractive career.
- Schools are under resourced, e.g. few access to textbooks.
- Many schools have poor buildings and facilities.
- Schools might charge fees/parents can’t afford uniforms.
- Education can be shaped by colonial past- e.g. english literature is studied and not local texts.
- Students don’t get a full day at school - can operate on a morning and afternoon basis.
- Wars can stop or disrupt education.
- Illness and diseases can be more prevalent meaning it is hard for students to get to school.
- Gender inequalities mean girls are not prioritised for school.
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modernisation theory of education
theorists see education as a key part of international aid, both in terms of technical skills but also higher education for the children of the elite. For this reason, aid projects also include university place for the children of leaders, aiming to encourage a more democratic future.
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marxist view on education
Marxists argue that education is generally used to train people up to work in TNCs, with minimal critical skills, to benefit MEDCs and keep LEDCs in a state of dependency.
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feminist view on education
Feminists, including Marxist-feminists, point out that patriarchal values that seek to prevent the education of girls, or to keep female education to a minimum, effectively force women into subservient positions in society. If girls can get a good education, then they can start to break through the patriarchy, achieve higher-status roles in society and positions of leadership. It is also noted by neo-Malthusians and others concerned about rapid population growth, that education of girls can help bring down the birth rate because women will start to value career and delay childbirth or choose not to have children at all.
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functionalist view on education
As economies develop, jobs become more specialized and thus education ensures that workers are skilled and sorts them by ability into appropriate jobs. This idea that education plays a vocational role has been influenced by functionalist ideas of the role of education proposed by Durkheim and Parsons.
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positives of universal primary education
- It can rise living standards in their countries which can lead to health benefits in the countries.
- in the north, it is associated with economic growth, raising living standards and improvement in health
- allows countries ot ensure that people have the skills for the workplace
- education is a human right - especially literacy and maths
it has lead to much less gender inequality for girls
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negatives of universal primary education
- Often the schooling is free but the families can’t afford uniforms, stationary and other prerequisites for accessing the classroom.
- limited resources means that those with more money get education
- countries often prioritise economic growth over education
- many people do not feel as though they can identify with schools and become for rebellious
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what is modernisation theory of education
argue that education is essential to development. They favors Western style education system and curriculum, able to spread modern values. Higher education is essential to train future political and business leaders.
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marxist/ dependancy view of education
simply working in the interests of capitalism, so dependency theorists see a lot of Western-backed education in the developing world as serving the interests of global capitalism: as being a form of neo-imperialism or cultural imperialism.
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functionalist view on education
As economies develop, jobs become more specialized and thus education ensures that workers are skilled and sorts them by ability into appropriate jobs.
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what is health?
Global health is the study of health at the scale of worldwide populations, concerning health issues that transcend national borders.
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what can health be divided into?
Diseases of affluence
Diseases of poverty
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cases for private health care
efficiency- the have an incentive to be efficient with care
alternative - give those who can afford it more choice
demand keeps rising - helps the public sector keep up with increasing demand
not limited - no limited budget to hold them back
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cases for public health care
equality - ensures everyone has access to a basic standard of living
positive externalities - better health increases the labour productivity
adverse selection - in free market, those who are unhealthy will buy insurance and drive up price
public service - becomes less about profit making
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What group of theorists would support the marketization of healthcare?
Neol liberals and modernisation theorists would support this. They would point out that this method help the economy and increase development, helping iprove entrepreneurship and offer more choice for individuals and less pressure and involvement from the government
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what does neoliberalism think about health care
- prioritizes consumer choice over equity and access to care.
- cut spending in the public sector and reduced income from taxes on imports and businesses
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what do modernisation theorists think about health
Resources from aid and techniques and technologies of Western-style healthcare should be used in order to help LIC develop
- the use of 'traditional' medical practices should be stopped.
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what do dependancy theorists think about helath
we cannot assume LICs can easily follow the modern Western-style healthcare system without any difficulties.
Health is impacted by the pollution and environmental damage caused by TNCs
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what is involed in stage 1 of the demographic transition model
Birth and death rates are both high. Total population is low but it is balanced.
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what is involved in stage 2 of the demographic transition model
This is when the death rate falls rapidly. The birth rate remains high. Total population will start to rise because the death rates will start to fall
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what is involved in stage 3 of the demographic transition model
This is when the birth rate begins to fall rapidly. The death rate continues to fall but much more slowly. Total population is rising rapidly. The gap between birth and death rates will narrow
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what is invovled in stage 4 of the demographic transition model
This is when the birth and death rates are both low and usually balanced. Total population is high and growing slowly. It is balanced by a low birth rate
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what is involved in stage 5 of the demographic transition model
At this stage both rates remain relatively low, but the death rate is now higher than the birth rat
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Explain why in LICS birth rates tend to be very high?
infant mortality rate is higher so people birth more children to increase their chance of having children that survive
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Explain why DR rapidly falls between stages 1 and 2?
new ways of improving health are starting to be introduced, for example sanitation
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Why do we see a huge shift in BR in stage 3? What is occuring in the country?
women are starting to be educated on contraception
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Stage 4 has low BR and DR, give some reasons for this.
women are more focused on their careers rather than having children, and people are living much longer due to more access to healthcare
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In stage 5, DR goes above BR to see a population decline. Why does this occur?
population is ageing and is being taken over by elderly people who all are beginning to die.
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what does malthus believe about overpopulation?
argued that the world's population would grow quicker than the world's food supply, leading to a point of crisis. For Malthus, he saw it as necessary to reduce the high birth rates that would otherwise lead to famine, poverty and conflict.
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according to malthus, what are the two possilbe outcomes?
- Population exceeds food supply and is kept in check by war, famine, or disease. It then drops below the food supply. As the population recovers, so the cycle continues.
- the population could pre-empt the food shortages and so slow their population growth keeping it within the limits of the food supply.
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what do neo malthusians beleive about overpopulation ?
- overpopulation causes not just poverty but also rapid (uncontrolled) urbanisation, environmental damage and the depletion of resources.
- Family planning - free contraception and free access to abortion
Financial incentives to reduce the family size (e.g. Singapore, China)
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what did elrich predict?
He predicted that the 1970’s would be a decade in which hundreds of millions would starve to death and no emergency aid programmes would be able to prevent it.
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what does Boserup say in contrast to malthus?
Boserup, on the other hand, said that food supply would increase to accommodate population growth. As a population found that they were approaching food shortages they would identify ways of increasing supply whether through new technology, better seeds, new farming methods.
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David Adamson (1986)
That the unequal distribution of resources as outlined above is the major cause of poverty, famine and malnutrition.
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what does Dependency theory beleive about demographic hcange
argue that the education of women is central to reducing birth rates. this can be done by :
Increased awareness around health problems: awareness creates action, which reduces infant mortality
Increased women's autonomy over their own bodies and their own fertility
Easier access to (and improvement in understanding of) contraception
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Why are lots of girls out of school around the world?
poverty, child marriage and gender-based violence
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what does Boserup say about gender and development
Women have always been an important component in the practice of agriculture and emphasises gender and an important factor in the division of labour
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what does Leonard say about gender and development
western patriarchal values were imported to the developing world as well as being still prominent in MEDCs
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what do modernisation theorists say about gender and development
argue that countries with gender inequality were patriarchal long before and to embrace western values is to reduce gender inequality
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what do marxist feminists say about gender and development
capitalism has pushed women into jobs with extremely low pay, minimal rights and horrible working conditions
