Global Development Flashcards
1
Q
Four Types of Development
A
Economic
Social
Political
Cultural
2
Q
How is Economic Development Measured?
A
Gross National Income (GNI)
3
Q
How is Social Development Measured
A
Education
Health
Democracy
Gender Equality
4
Q
What is the HDI?
A
Human Development Index - it is a composite measure that combines GNI, education and health.
5
Q
What is the IHDI?
A
Inequality-Adjusted Human Development Index - takes into account disparities in a country’s GNI, health and education between different groups (eg social class)
6
Q
How has Poverty been defined in the Past?
A
"Three Worlds" "North and South" "Majority and Minority" "Developed and Undeveloped" "MEDC, LEDC, LLEDC"
7
Q
“The Bottom Billion”
A
Paul Collier (2007) - says most countries are developed or developing well. We need to focus on those in the bottom billion.
8
Q
Four SDG’s
A
Quality Education
Climate Action
Gender Equality
Affordable and Clean Energy
9
Q
Modernisation Theory
A
Influenced by Functionalism
Traditional societies will develop as they adopt more modern (western) values
10
Q
The Marshall Plan
A
Modernisation theories first big application.
USA offered money to countries struggling after WW2 to stop the spread of communism
11
Q
The Rostow Model
A
- Traditional Society
- Pre-Conditions for Take-off
- Take-off
- Drive to Maturity
- High Mass Consumption
12
Q
Parsons - Modernisation Theory
A
Development is a form of evolution.
As society becomes more advanced it naturally becomes more capitalist.
13
Q
Parsons Barriers to development
A
Traditional values and attitudes Lacking a meritocratic drive High birth rates Lack of individuals desire to compete Lack of modern technology
14
Q
In What Areas do Developing Countries Need to “Modernise”
A
Technological Agricultural Industrial Geographical Political Social and Cultural
15
Q
Dependency Theory
A
Influenced by neo-marxism.
Criticises Modernisation theories capitalist approach.
16
Q
Frank (1969) - Dependency Theory
A
“Underdevelopment”
It is in the interest of rich countries to keep some other countries poor.
Rich capitalist countries deliberately prevent and discourage the development of some nations.
17
Q
“A Capitalist Empire” Theory
A
The old countries practised colonialism.
the new capitalist empire practises neo-colonialism (taking control of other countries through investment and aid).
18
Q
Dependency Theory Diagram
A
https: //www.youtube.com/watch?v=JN6LlMY2ApQ
01. international division of labour
02. class divide
03. global capitalism
19
Q
Hoselitz (1952) - Modernisation Theory
A
Developing countries need to modernise socially and culturally as well as economically.
Western ideas could be spread through education and mass media.
20
Q
Booth 1985 - Theory Impasse
A
There was no consensus amongst sociologists.
21
Q
People Centered Development and Environmentalism
A
A socialist theory looking at happiness and health as indicators of successful development.
22
Q
Key Points of People Centered Development
A
Sustainability
Participation
Justice
Basic Needs
23
Q
Post-Development
A
Postmodernist Theory that criticises other theories for being outdated.
We are now living in a post structuralist society.
24
Q
Metropolis vs Satellite
A
In the modern world, economically small nations are poor as their talent is encouraged to leave for the rich country (Brain Drain).
Development theorists say this strips poor countries of value and keeps them dependent.
This has been referred to as the metropolis and satellite chain.
25
Undeveloped vs Underdeveloped
Mercantile Capitalists: There has always been less developed countries.
Colonial Powers: Some didn't develop because technology hadn't been developed yet or social conditions kept them back.
Ruled Territories: Some didn't develop because they were underdeveloped by empires.
26
What sociological theory influenced World Systems Theory?
Marxism (Traditional)
27
World Systems Theory
Influenced by traditional marxism.
| Suggests there is a world economic system in which some countries benefit while others are exploited
28
Warren (1980) - World Systems Theory
Used development in non-capitalist third world countries as evidence that capitalism could help countries develop without negative dependency on the west.
29
Wallerstein - World Systems Theory Diagram
01. high profit consumption goods
| 02. cheap labour and raw materials
30
Neoliberalism
Influenced by New Right.
| Free market capitalism in its modern form. The main goal is reducing state influence in the economy.
31
Neoliberal Policies
```
Cut taxes
Encourage free trade
Integrate into global economy
Cut subsidies
Abolish parastatal institutions
Privatisation
Cut state spending
```
32
Types of Globalisation
Economic
Political
Cultural
33
Evidence for Economic Globalisation
Frobel et al. (1980) - there is a new international division of labour.
The growth of TNCs, improved transport and better communication makes global trade possible.
Ritzer (2000) - McDonaldisation
34
Evidence for Political Globalisation
States now act together in global decision making (e.g. UN, NATO, EU, etc.)
NGOs also often act globally (Oxfam, Red Cross, MSF, etc.)
35
Evidence for Cultural Globalisation
```
Worldwide communication (Social Media)
Global consumerism (Netflix, Amazon, etc.)
World Sport (e.g. the Olympics)
International Tourism
```
36
Neoliberal Perspectives on Globalisation
"positive globalists" as it extends free markets, liberal democracy and "trickle down" equality.
Support cultural globalisation because they want cultural homogenisation.
37
Radical Perspectives on Globalisation
"negative globalists" believe globalisation only serves to increase inequality by making businesses more profitable through exploitative and disingenuous practises.
Galtung (1969) - "structural violence"
38
Transformationalist Perspectives on Globalisation
Aren't certain what the outcome of globalisation will be.
| Cohen and Kennedy (2012) - globalisation might naturally slow or reverse. + Hybridisation of cultures around the world.
39
Coyle (2001) - Trade
International trade has replaced internal supply of goods at an ever increasing rate.
Most trade is controlled by and benefits rich countries.
40
The Importance of Trade
Trade between rich and poor countries is key to understanding development.
41
Case Study on Trade: Burundi
- 70% of national income is from coffee production.
- This means that their main product isn't something they need to survive, leaving them at the mercy of trade.
- The process of trade syphons off the coffee's value leaving Burundi with a very small cut.
42
The Supply Chain
```
Producer -->
Buyer -->
Shipping -->
Distributor -->
Seller -->
COnsumer -->
```
43
Global Trade Risks
Supply and demand changes prices.
Competition drives prices down.
Politics and fashion in rich countries changes demand often.
Poor countries often rely on products that are vulnerable to natural disasters.
44
Hirst and Thompson (1999) - Globalisation
Political globalisation has affected many countries, with neoliberal countries willing to work with anyone who supports them (e.g. Mugabe and Assad), while counter movements have come and gone (e.g. Iran, Jihadism, Taliban, etc.). There has been an increase in democratic countries since the 1970's.
45
McGrew (2004) - Globalisation
There are many modern examples of cultural globalisation
- Bollywood
- Kpop / Kdramas
Some countries try to limit this. For example, Iran turning to religious fundamentalism and North Korea's isolation.
46
Kunstler (2005) - Globalisation
Economic globalisation is in decline.
SInce the 2008 financial crash, countries are less keen to rely on global markets and are ready to reject globalisation.
(e.g. Brexit)
47
Four Agencies of Development
States
TNCs
NGOs
IGOs
48
Define States
Countries and their systems
| e.g. legal system, police, military, civil service, etc
49
Define TNCs
Transnational Corporations
Refers to corporations that have globalised operations and sell around the world.
(e.g. Amazon)
50
Define NGOs
Non Governmental Organisations
These are not connected to the government, nor do they exist to make profit, like businesses.
(e.g. Oxfam, Red Cross, etc.)
51
Define IGOs
Inter Governmental Organisations
Supranational organisations made up of a number of states that cooperate.
(e.g. UN, NATO, etc.)
52
Edward and Hulme (2013) - Agencies of Development
NGOs are becoming closer with governments and sources of funding than the people they are trying to help.
53
Case Study for Aid - Tanzania
Tanzania are heavily in debt. Because of this they have had to cut back on basic services like education and healthcare.
The burden of debt ($5 billion) has fallen on everyone in the country.
54
The Debt Crisis
Rich countries started giving loans to poor countries. This served capitalist interest in the short term but the economic crash in the 70's/80's rich countries couldn't afford to buy goods which meant poor countries lost income and couldn't pay debts.
55
What are the Six Boomerangs
```
Environment
Unemployment
Drugs
Migration
Taxes
War
```
56
Define Formal Employment
Jobs with regular hours, a weekly set wage, pay taxes and have reasonable working conditions.
57
Define Informal Employment
These jobs do not involve the payment of taxes, are often unskilled and labour intensive, require little money to set up and offer no protection to the worker if they are sick or fall upon hard times.
58
What Groups Does Informal Employment Affect
Children
Elderly
People with disabilities
Women
59
Define Remittance
Refers to the transfer of money by a migrant worker back to family and friends in their country of origin.
60
Three Examples of Obstacles Developing Countries face in Education
- Teachers are not well paid and may not be well trained.
- Schools may charge fees that parents can't afford.
- War disrupts education.
61
Amartya Sen (1999) - Education
Argues that education is essential both to increase human capability to make choices for ourselves and because development is not possible without it.
62
Key Trends in Education
- By 2015, although the number of children not in school had fallen by half there were still 58 million children not in school and 100 million who did not finish primary education.
- Girls are less likely to attend schools than boys.
- Gaps between rich and poor has widened, with children from poorer families far less likely to go to school than rich ones.
- There are about 781 million illiterate adults (although this is an improvement from 18% of the adult population in 2000).
63
Modernisation Theory on Health
- Expect health patterns of developing countries to follow those of the developed world in the past.
- Developing countries are now entering the epidemiologic transition.
- Developing countries should draw on aid and expertise from the developed world.
64
Dependency Theory on Health
- Developing countries may not be able to follow the path of developed countries.
- This is due to a number of factors, for example: Pharmaceutical TNCs making the price of medicine unaffordable for lots of people in LEDCs and LLEDCs.
65
Define Epidemiologic Transition
In health, the change from the main problem in a society being infectious diseases to it being "diseases of affluence" such as cancer and heart disease that are caused by lifestyle (environmental) factors.
66
What is Mercantile Trade?
Maximising exports and Minimising Imports
67
What is Comparative Advantage?
When a country makes something they are good at and trades with other countries with low tariffs.
68
Aims of the WTO
- Take down tariffs
| - Settle disputes between countries
69
Issues with the WTO
Countries with money cheat the system.
| Majority of the WTO's funding comes from the USA - allowing them to get their way.
70
Types of Aid
Humanitarian aid
Bilateral aid
Multilateral aid
Tied aid
71
Define Humanitarian Aid
Provided for humanitarian purposes, typically in response to humanitarian crises, including natural and man-made disasters.
72
Define Bilateral Aid
Aid given from one government directly to another.
73
Define Multilateral Aid
International organisations like the world bank providing aid to LEDC nations.
74
Define Tied Aid
Foreign aid that must be spent in the country providing the aid specifies.
75
Define Demography
The study of human populations, in particular their size and composition, and how they change
76
Demography - Population Factors
```
Urbanisation
Education
Changing role of women
Availability of contraception
Improving healthcare and social services
Effects of structura; adjustment programmes on access to and cost of education and health.
```
77
Thomas Malthus - Demography
Population will grow faster than food supply.
Wars over food / resources might end society.
Gave his name to modern "neo-malthusians"
78
Neo-Malthusians on Demography
Believe populations growth is the reason developing countries are poor.
Aid should control population growth.
79
Boserup's Theory - Demography
When the population is reaching the point when the food supply is reaching exhaustion:
Malthus says the extra people have to die.
Baserup says that you just have to up the productivity of the food supply.
80
Adamson - Demography
Poverty and lack of development are not a consequence of high population growth - they are the cause of it.
Poor people have more children to support them, rather than to make them poor.
81
What are some of the potential pitfalls of only measuring development through economic considerations such as GNI?
Ignores other inequalities - eg. Social
Rich countries, Eg. Saudi Arabia, are rich but have poor welfare systems and are poor on human rights.
Negative environmental impact - not sustainable?
82
Explain the difference between the HDI and the Human Development Report on how they measure development?
```
HDI
GNI per capita
Education (Years in ed by 25 & exp years in ed)
Health (life exp)
HDR
Multidimensional Poverty Index (MPI)
Gender Inequality Index (GII)
Inequality-adjusted Human Development Index (IHDI)
```
83
Explain why what is classed as poverty may differ from nation to nation?
Poverty is relative.
| Different countries have different price indexes.
84
Explain how similar or different the Un’s MDGs are compared to the SDGs?
Revisions include “eliminating poverty” rather than “reducing poverty” and a focus on protecting the environment and sustainability.
85
During which historical era/period did modernisation theory emerge as dominant?
The Cold War (c.1941 - 1991)
86
Provide one critical evaluation of Rostow’s blueprint for modernisation?
It’s been criticised for its ethnocentric message - there’s only one valid way for a country to improve itself and communism is “a kind of disease” (Rostow, 1960)
87
What sociological theory influenced World Systems Theory?
Marxism (Traditional)
88
During which historical era/period did dependency theory emerge as dominant?
Late 1960s/70s.
| Vietnam War - (left-wingers of 1960s)
89
Explain the view of history that dependency theorists have?
Pre 1500 Western countries were not the most powerful.
Stage 1: Mercantilism (early empire)
Stage 2: Colonialism (high Empire)
Stage 3: Neocolonialism (New Empire)
90
What sociological theory influenced World Systems Theory?
Marxism (Traditional)
91
Explain how connected dependency theory and world systems theory are?
They both accept that Western developed countries dominate the global financial system and mostly exploit peripheral countries.
92
Explain one aspect of globalisation on which a neoliberal theorist might disagree with a dependency theorist.
Eg. neoliberals like the removal of “red tape” to support free market trade because they believe it increases fairness. Dependency theorists claim the rich access the market and are “free” while the citizens often remain oppressed.
93
Define “means of trade” as it appears in dependency theory?
Most trade is controlled by and benefits rich, capitalist countries - they control trade routes
Trade routes are necessary for free market trade
This propagates dependency
94
What is the “fair trade” programme?
Agreements by buyers to sell produce at higher prices in order to pass more money further down the supply chain. Consumers pay more for items with this label; the cost is not from the buyer.
95
Explain any “global trade risk” factor that might disadvantage poorer nations
Supply and demand
Competition
Politics and fashion
Natural disasters
96
Explain the contrasting perspectives between modernisation theorists and dependency theorists on education.
Dependency theorists see education as it is normally practised as a form of cultural imperialism, imposing Western values. CONTRASTINGLY,
Modernization theorists argue that education is essential to development. They favour a Western Style education system and curriculum, able to spread modern values.
97
Explain one argument against universal education as a priority
Where a country has limited resources, it may be better to educate a minority for leadership and management posts.
A country may decide to achieve economic growth first, seeing education as something that cannot yet be afforded
Education may simply make people more discontented and rebellious if they cannot use their education to improve their lives.
98
Samura's Criticisms (3 and examples)
01. Undemocratic or corrupt governments wasting aid through inefficiencies of theft. (Afghanistan)
02. Aid is too often used to strengthen armed forces, as recipients are usually in politically unstable regions.
03. Projects are chosen without good research. (Iraq, before 1990)
04. Projects often damage the environment to make money, so aid is a false economy for MEDC’s. (Brazil)
05. Rich foreign “experts” often decide where money goes, without ever visiting or understanding the needs “on the ground”. (Kenya)
06. Projects send items / money where they will be abused:
e. g. war zones (it’s stolen by militia) (Iraq, after 2003).
e. g. dictatorships (it’s used to increase control) (Belarus).
99
Alternatives to traditional aid
Crowdfunding
Individual investment
Neoliberal, market-driven solutions
100
Case Study: Sole Rebels (shoe company in Ethiopia)
Appropriate technology
Sustainable development loans go to business and not government
Introducing comparative advantage
Benefits the locals / workers
101
Arguments for aid
01. Sachs (2005), argues for a big push of large-scale, focused and integrated aid to lift developing countries out of poverty.
02. Collier (2007), estimates that over the past thirty years, aid has added one percentage point to the annual growth rate of the countries in the “bottom billion”.
03. Bauer argued that third world countries are responsible for their own poverty (this has been challenged on ethical grounds).
102
Arguments against aid
01. Neoliberals argue that aid creates dependency
02. Neo Marxists view aid as imperialism
03. Aid can encourage corruption
04. Social democrats believe that aid can work, but is often inappropriate or inefficient.
103
Examples of where aid has not contributed to development
- aid that supports corrupt or undemocratic governments.
- aid that is used to strengthen armed forces.
- projects that are inappropriate and do more harm than good
- projects that cause damage to the environment.
- projects that employ highly paid foreign experts who have little to no knowledge of local conditions and ignore the views of local people.
104
What term could be used to describe how women used to be largely invisible in the study of development?
Malestream sociology
105
Examples of Gender Inequality globally (7)
01. in some countries in the middle east and asia, forced marriages of young girls.
02. women are disadvantaged in education. two-thirds of the world's illiterate are women.
03. in many cultures there is a preference for male children. this can lead to selective abortion and in some cases infanticide.
04. gender based violence is disproportionately towards women.
05. women have the burden of work for an income, domestic work and emotional work.
06. women's health: pregnancy and childbirth can be very dangerous.
07. women are more likely to live in poverty.
106
Case study: 2004 Indian Ocean tsunami
- four times as many women died
- women were less likely to be able to swim
- women trying to save children
107
Cast study: child brides and forced marriages
- rural villages in Egypt, Afghanistan, Bangladesh, Ethiopia, Pakistan, India and M.E.
- in Afghanistan 60-80% of marriages are forced
- in developing world, leading cause of death for women 15-19 is pregnancy
108
Case study: neopatriarchy
- incel
- jake davidson, mass murdered in plymouth
- increase in violence against women in south africa
109
Nikki van der Gaag (2008) - Gender
Suggests that progress is being threatened as economic globalisation has led to an increase in trafficking of women and the growth of industries in which female workers are exploited.
110
Modernisation theory - gender
- predates second wave feminism
- can be seen as "malestream" sociology (Anne Oakley)
- closely associated with functionalism (Parsons and Murdock)
- some see patriarchal values in some cultures as being another internal barrier to development and that more gender equality facilitates economic growth.
111
Dependency theory - gender
- predates second wave feminism
- "malestream" sociology
- focuses on relationships between countries not social groups
- dependency theory and world systems theory don't focus on gender equality
112
Postmodern take - gender
- the move of women into the workspace in western countries means these migrants women often fill that role of care
- arguably leaves a "care deficit" in the home country.
- sex industry employs many women from developing countries. (Thailand, a country with a population of 60 million has between 500'000 and one million sex workers (1 in 20 are enslaved).
113
Marxist feminism - gender
- focuses on the exploitation of third world women by TNCs.
- the issue isn't so much that capitalism has pushed women into a domestic role, but rather that capitalism has pushed women into sweatshops and very low paid roles with minimal rights, in which women are the preferred workers compared to men.
- there is some evidence of women suffering terrible hardships in sweatshops, including beatings, sexual harassment and assault, etc. this is particularly the case in export processing zones (EPZs) which Froebel describes as a new form of exploitative colonialism.
114
war and conflict - economic damage
- wars are expensive and impact on living standards
- infrastructure targeted and destroyed
- debt
- unemployment
115
war and conflict - death and displacement
- wars lead to huge losses of life
| - also can lead to huge displacement (e.g. Syria, Afghanistan, etc.)
116
war and conflict - environmental damage
- unexploded mines
- heavy artillery
- chemical weaponry
117
war and conflict - disease
- Kaldor (2007) points out that disease spreads rapidly in war zones and post-conflict situations, especially in refugee camps
118
Import substitution industrialisation (ISI)
- common in the developing world in the 50's and 60's
- based on the production of domestic consumer goods to replace imported ones
- domestic production for domestic consumption
- led to tariffs, importing of raw materials and inflation
119
Export - oriented industrialisation (EOI)
- shift towards this in the 70's and 80's
- an industrialisation strategy based on production for export.
- asian tigers (NICs) arguably adopted these policies in the 50's and 60's and they proved successful.
120
Consequences of industrialisation
- urbanisation
- slum housing
- migration
- environmental degradation
121
Define urbanisation
the process by which a growing population of people living in cities and towns (and also the consequences that surround this).
122
Key trends of urbanisation:
- in 2007, for the first time, half the world's population were living in cities (compared to 13% in 1900)
- city = population of over 100'00
- mega city = population of over 10 million
- in 1950 there were 2 mega cities, new york and tokyo; by 2014 there were 28.
- third world cities tend to be bigger and fewer. there is often a primate city, much larger that any other cities in the country, where there will be an international airport and other facilities.
- urbanisation has not been accompanied by industrialisation; city dwellers often make a living from informal-sector work rather than being formally employed
123
Modernisation theorists - urbanisation
- the growth of cities is essential for economic growth
- cities provide a labour force concentrated in one place for factories and businesses
- they are also important in promoting cultural change because they remove people from the countryside and expose them to western values
124
Dependency theorists - urbanisation
- colonialism has made it impossible for developing countries to follow in the footsteps of the developed world.
- urbanisation in developing countries today is fundamentally different because it is not a response to industrialisation.
- legacy of colonialism, trading outposts, etc.
125
Paul Collier (2000) - war and conflict
A number of factors can cause conflict.
He argues that resource wealth can lead to conflict.
Countries with oil reserves or diamonds, for instance, often attract conflict.
Ethnic divides and political instability are also key.
Collier argues that aid priorities ought to examine conflict and minimise it, partly for the good of MEDCs as well as LEDCs.
126
Frances Stewart (2002) - war and conflict
the underlying causes of conflict are economic more than ethnic or cultural: lack of resources, unemployment, poor government are usually the root causes of conflict.
127
Factors leading to war in developing countries
- weak institutions
- religion
- debt
- western interference
- corrupt government / predatory state
- colonialism
- resources
- factionalism
