Global Commons

Question 1

What are global commons? What are the 4 main global commons? - Global Commons

Answer 1

Global commons are areas not owned or controlled by any single country or organisation. They belong to all.
The main 4 global commons are the high seas, Antarcica, the Atmosphere and Outer Space.

Question 2

What is the tragedy of the commons? - Global Commons

Answer 2

The tragedy of the commons is where shared and collective resources are likely to be exploited in the event that individuals act independently in their own self-interest. This will cause these shared resources to eventually become depleted.

Question 3

What pressures exist on global commons? - Global Commons

Answer 3

Global commons are threatened by increased resource demand due to industrialisation and development, the impacts of waste disposal on these commons and the ability to access areas that were previously inaccessible without technology.

Question 4

What environmental and ecological problems face the global commons as a result of pressures on these areas? - Global Commons

Answer 4

Overfishing threatens the food chain and damages environments when fishing becomes unsustainable, atmospheric pollution causes climate change, increased CO2 presence causes the acidification of the oceans.

Question 5

What balance must be created by the protection of global commons? - Global Commons

Answer 5

Global commons are protected to balance the need for development with a need for protection.

Question 6

What is required for development to be sustainable in relation to global commons? What body is this achieved through? - Global Commons

Answer 6

For development of global commons to be sustainable, this requires global cooperation. This is made possible by multilateral bodies such as the UN.

Question 7

How large is Antarctica in relation to the UK? - Global Commons

Answer 7

Antarctica is 60 times the size of the UK.

Question 8

What is Antarctica? What is the Antarctic Circle? - Global Commons

Answer 8

Antarctica is the continent surrounding the South Pole. The Arctic Circle is an imaginary line around the world running parallel to the Equator at 66°S.

Question 9

What is the South Pole? What is the Antarctic Convergence? - Global Commons

Answer 9

The South Pole is the furthest point south on Earth. The Antarctic Convergence is the point at which cold Antarctic water meets the warmer water to the north.

Question 10

What are ice shelves? What are the 2 ice shelves in Antarctica known as? - Global Commons

Answer 10

Ice shelves are sheets of ice which float on the ocean but are attached to land. Antarctica has 2 ice shelves: the Ronne Ice Shelf and the Ross Ice Shelf.

Question 11

What are the 3 main regions of Antarctica? - Global Commons

Answer 11

Antarctica’s 3 main regions are East Antarctica, West Antarctica and the Antarctic Peninsula (a stretch of land attached to West Antarctica).

Question 12

What is the name of Antarctica’s tallest mountain? Where is this located? How tall is this? - Global Commons

Answer 12

Antarctica’s tallest mountain is Vinson Massif, located in West Antarctica. This is 4897m tall.

Question 13

What is the average temperature in Antarctica? How much rainfall is there annually? - Global Commons

Answer 13

Average temperatures in Antarctica are -49°C. There is 166 mm of rainfall annually.

Question 14

What % of the Earth’s ice is stored at Antarctica? How much of the Earth’s freshwater is stored in Antarctica? - Global Commons

Answer 14

90% of the Earth’s ice is stored in Antarctica. 70% of the Earth’s freshwater is stored in Antarctica.

Question 15

Describe Antarctica’s wildlife in terms of plants and animals - Global Commons

Answer 15

Plants: only specifically adapted plants can survive in Antarctica, while there are only 2 species of flowering plants here. Lichens and mosses can grow.
Animals: animal life above the ocean restricted to insects and mites, although surronding ocean home to rich marine life eg. penguins, seals.

Question 16

Explain why Antarctica’s environment and ecology is fragile - Global Commons

Answer 16

Antarctica’s lack of warmth, water and sunlight means only very limited species may survive. Vulnerable to climactic change. Marine environment also very vulnerable, with ecosystem changes potentially having significant ramifications.

Question 17

What is the environmental significance of the Antarctic Convergence? - Global Commons

Answer 17

At the Antarctic Convergence, upwelling of cold water occurs, which is nutrient rich, allowing the creation of an environmentally productive environment for plants and animals.

Question 18

How is Antarctica’s temperature impacted by latitude and altitude respectively? - Global Commons

Answer 18

Latitude: the further an area is from the equator, the colder it will be as solar energy is dispersed over a wider area.
Altitude: locations at higher altitudes have lower temperatures, with temperatures decreasing by 1°C for every 100m gained in altitude.

Question 19

How is Antarctica’s temperature impacted by the distance from the sea and the wind chill factor? - Global Commons

Answer 19

Distance from sea: oceans change their temperature much more slowly than land does, meaning cooler summers and warmer winters at the coast.
Wind chill factor: the stronger the wind, the faster the cooling of an object is, moving heat away from an object and making surrounding air feel colder than it is.

Question 20

Explain how fishing and whaling is a threat to Antarctica - Global Commons

Answer 20

19th Century saw Antarctic whales killed for oil and whalebone due to reduced whale populations elsewhere. The overfishing of this population threatens ecosystems here.

Question 21

What protections exist against fishing and whaling in Antarctica? What limitations are there to these? - Global Commons

Answer 21

The Intl. Whaling Commission has been established, ending most whaling by 1985. This body later established the Southern Ocean Whaling Sanctuary, which banned commercial whaling. However, Japan, Norway and Iceland were not signatories to this, while fishing has continued to increase, damaging habitats.

Question 22

Explain how climate change is a threat to Antarctica - Global Commons

Answer 22

Although ice is accumulating in the East due to snow, the West is losing ice dramatically, threatening landscapes. 3mm sea level rise/year. Has caused penguin and krill populations to fall without their habitat being sustained. Weddell Sea/Ross Sea Ice Shelves melting.

Question 23

Explain how mineral extraction is threatening Antarctica. What current protections exist against this? - Global Commons

Answer 23

Future resource demand may lead to Antarctica, rich in resources (in Transantarctic Mountains, oil under Southern Ocean), being mined for minerals. Currently, this area is protected by the Antarctic Treaty from any mining, but this may be put under pressure.

Question 24

Explain how tourism and research is a threat to Antarctica - Global Commons

Answer 24

Transport, technology and clothing advancements have made Antarctica more accessible than previously before. This, combined with the attraction of landscapes and heritage sites have threatened the destabilisation of habitats and interruption of nature (non-native species introduced potentially/breeding disrupted).

Question 25

What is sovereignty? What nations have sovereignty over Antarctica? - Global Commons

Answer 25

Sovereignty is a political concept that refers to a dominant power or a supreme authority. The ability to control and make decisions.
France, UK, AUS, NZ, Chile, Argentina, Norway have sovereignty over Antarctica.

Question 26

What is the Antarctic Treaty? What does it determine? - Global Commons

Answer 26

The Antarctic Treaty is a multilateral agreement signed to protect Antarctica. This restricts military use of the area, creates a nuclear free zone, postpones territorial claims, creates freedom of scientific investigation etc.

Question 27

What is the Madrid Protocol? - Global Commons

Answer 27

The Madrid Protocal is a further agreement between the signatories of the Antarctic Treaty to protect Antarctica from any commercial exploitation (mainly of mineral wealth) until 2048.

Question 28

What successes and limitations exist of the Antarctic Treaty/Madrid Protocol in protecting Antarctica? - Global Commons

Answer 28

Successes - Treaty continued in use for >50 years with no disuptes, cooperation seen in scientific research. Incredibly successful intl. treaty.
Limitations - unanimous decision making required for any change, preventing decisions from being taken. May be movement on commercial mining.

Question 29

What is the role of the International Whaling Commission in Antarctica? - Global Commons

Answer 29

The International Whaling Commission aims to regulate whaling and ensure that whale populations remain at a sustainable level. Includes a moratorium on whaling in certain areas of the Southern Ocean.

Question 30

What are successes and limitations of the International Whaling Commission? - Global Commons

Answer 30

Successes - resulted in a whale sanctuary being set up in the Southern Ocean, has also seen regulation of whaling in the region. Banned global commercial whaling.
Limitations - IWC does not adequately measure number of whales in the sanctuary, Japan and Norway have withdrawn from whaling moratorium.

Question 31

What is the role of the United Nations Environmental Protection Programme/Commission for Conservation of Antarctic Marine Living Resources in Antarctica? - Global Commons

Answer 31

UNEP - UN agency which governs the global environment and reports on status of Antarctica to the UN.
Commission for Conservation of Antarctic Marine Living Resources - aims to stop illegal fishing and conserve Antarctic ecosystem.

Question 32

What are successes and limitations of the United Nations Environmental Protection Programme/Commission for Conservation of Antarctic Marine Living Resources? - Global Commons

Answer 32

Successes - presents report on Antarctica every 3 years, has set up protected fishing areas to stop illegal catchment.
Limitations - individual countries largely seek to protect their own interests, fishing remains high in the Ross Sea.

Question 33

What is the role of the Antarctic and Southern Ocean Coalition in Antarctica? - Global Commons

Answer 33

The Antarctic and Southern Ocean Coalition protects Antarctica from plans to search for oil, gas and minerals. This body attends Antarctic Treaty meetings and makes these more transparent.

Question 34

What successes and limitations have there been of the Antarctic and Southern Ocean Coalition in protecting Antarctica? - Global Commons

Answer 34

Successes - determines whether countries are complying with the Antarctic treaty, protects whale sanctuary from any atttempts to re-establish commercial whaling, monitors climate change.
Limitations - not as influential as individual governments may be.

Question 35

What is the role of Greenpeace/WWF/Friends of the Earth in Antarctica? - Global Commons

Answer 35

These groups all monitor threats to Antarctica and aim to protect its environment. They provide notable expertise and complement the works of individual governments.

Question 36

What are succeses and limitations of Greenpeace/WWF/Friends of the Earth in protecting Antarctica? - Global Commons

Answer 36

Successes - effectively complement the works of governments, provide expertise and champion important causes, do not aim to exploit an area on behalf of individual countries (acting in the common interest)
Limitations - have little direct impact on decision making compared to governments.

Question 37

What is the role of the International Association of Antarctic Tour Operators in Antarctica? - Global Commons

Answer 37

The International Association of Antarctic Tour Opeartors tries to create sustainable and environmentally friendly tourism to Antarctica. Aims to protect vegetation and animal life in doing so.

Question 38

What successes and limitations are there of the International Association of Antarctic Tour Operators in protecting Antarctica? - Global Commons

Answer 38

Successes - maintains limits on tourism ad regulates this to reduce damage to the environment in Antarctica and create sustainable tourism.
Limitations - difficult to police and ensure environmentally safe tourism.

Question 39

What are NGOs (examples)? How do they play an important role in the government of Antarctica? - Global Commons

Answer 39

NGOs are Non-governmental organisations, which seek to hold governments to account for their actions in overseeing global commons. They represent views looking to conserve and protect areas rather than exploit them.
Include WWF, Greenpeace, Friends of the Earth.

Question 40

How does the global governance of Antarctica impact people and places in Antarctica and around the world? - Global Commons

Answer 40

Monitoring of melting ice has allowed climate change efforts to be informed, may impact economic growth if practices (eg. whaling/fishing are restrcited), allows greater scientific exploration of Antarctica, allows tourism to safely operate in Antarctica.