Global Climate—Vulnerability and Resistance

Question 1

Define: albedo, anthropogenic

Answer 1

Albedo: amount of incoming solar energy reflected back to atmosphere
Anthropogenic: human-related processes or impacts

Question 2

What are the atmospheric layers?

Answer 2

Dif altitude = change in gas concentration
< 17km, troposphere: weather, temp drops with height
17 to 50 km, stratosphere: stable, thin, increase temp with height from solar radiation
*35 km is ozone max concentration
50 to 80 km, mesosphere: temp decrease bc no energy absorption
80+ km, thermosphere: vacuum, temp increase from short wave

Question 3

What is the atmospheric energy balance?

Answer 3

Atmosphere is open-energy system recieving from sun (insolation) and earth
Sun drives weather + climate, most energy absorbed at tropics and lost at poles → resist from low to high latitudes by wind + ocean currents
Earth energy causes microclimates

Question 4

Describe earth’s atmospheric energy budget

Answer 4

Was balance between insolation and re-radiation, now global warming
Naturally, balance via: radiation, convection, conduction

Short-wave:
46% reach surface:↑long wave re-rad, atmospheric conduction, latent heat
31% reflected to space
22% water cycle
1% wind + ocean currents
Atmosphere heated from below

Greenhouse gases trap outgoing long-wave radiation

Question 5

What are the characteristics of short- and long-wave radiation?

Answer 5

Incoming short-wave: main input, varies with sun angle and cloud type
Mainly in visible wavelengths → not absorbed, but heat earth

Long-wave from earth: on cloudless nights big loss, on cloudy nights some is reflected
Seen in change of day to night temps

Question 6

What is the greenhouse effect?

Answer 6

Greenhouse gases allow short-wave radiation into earth, but trap long-wave radiation
Vital in keeping stable temps to support life

Water vapor: 50% of effect, not an issue for warming
CO2: 20% of effect, increasing from deforestation, fossil fuels
Methane: increasing presence from wetlands, cows
Chlorofluorocarbons: destroy ozone, increasing

Question 7

How do changes to solar radiation effect temperature?

Answer 7

11-year solar cycle and longer earth orbit cycles → seasonal changes and ice ages
Change in atmosphere or albedo = change in temp

Question 8

What is global dimming?

Answer 8

Air pollution decreases temperature—global dimming
After 9/11, 3 days w/o US air fleet → increased temp
Short-term cycles for <10 yrs after volcanos; long-term trends from humans

Normal air particles form a few water droplets → rain
Polluted air has more particles with small drops, so better reflection → not rain

Question 9

What are negative and positive feedback loops for global warming?

Answer 9

Positive: melting ice
Melting ice caps → lower albedo → less reflection → higher temps → melting

Positive: methane
Thawing permafrost → trapped methane released → more greenhouse → melting

Negative: evaporation
Low-lat precipitation → evaporation → snowfall in high-lat → lower temp

Negative: CO2
Atmosphere CO2 → more photosynthesis → more plants → less CO2

Question 10

Describe case study: negative feedback in Greenland

Answer 10

Since 2002, new areas of Greenland ice shelf are melting, more each year
Maybe:
Melting → rising sea levels → shut off Gulf Stream current → depressions → Britain snow → Greenland has time to freeze each winter

Question 11

What is the enhanced greenhouse effect?

Answer 11

Impact of increasing greenhouse gases from humans
Also called global warming

Linked to industrialization, trade, globalization
Per-capita, it’s an HIC problem

Question 12

How does climate change effect the hydrosphere?

Answer 12

Hydrosphere: freshwater, seawater, ice, glaciers
Rising sea levels (40 avg cm) could displace 200 mil
Glacier flood could threaten 5% of world pop
High risk of storm surge in coastal cities

Question 13

How would climate change effect sea ice / ice caps?

Answer 13

Arctic sea ice declining since 70s, ice isn’t there for as long (1988 25% > 4 y/o, 8% in 2013)
Positive feedback loop: less ice → more waves → ice breakage → less ice
Impacts: methane emissions, wet Europe summers, plankton blooms, loss of polar bears

Himalayan glaciers are retreating, likely to cause water shortage in high altitudes

Question 14

How do changes in carbon effect oceans?

Answer 14

Oceans have much more carbon than atmosphere, both rising
Ocean acidification from carbon diffused into water endangers marine species + shells
May decrease some phytoplankton

Question 15

How do changes in carbon effect the biosphere?

Answer 15

More carbon often = plant growth (25% of human carbon absorbed by terrestrial plants)
When farmland is abandoned, plants grow and store carbon; fires to clear land release it
Deforestation releases carbon from forests to atmosphere

Question 16

How do carbon changes effect ice?

Answer 16

Periglacial soil has high levels of dead organic matter bc slow decomposition
Thawing ice would increase productivity and a ton of methane (already high)
10% thaw → temp increase 0.7°C

Question 17

How does climate change effect biomes?

Answer 17

With changing temps, shift north, up in altitude
Rapid changes make adaptation hard: some migration, some extinction

Change in agriculture: many exposed to hunger, change in growing locations / seasons, lack of water

Question 18

How can climate change effect people?

Answer 18

Higher exposure to malaria, forced migration
Hunger and conflict from changes in resources, more effects on LICs
Coastal flooding will effect counties with Iand below sea level → economic stress
Loss of ecosystem services (pollination, flood control, climate regulation)

Question 19

Describe the potential impacts of temp increase

Answer 19

1°C basically impossible: no sea ice in summer; heat/fire esp Mediterranean, southern Africa, Aus, sw US; most corals die; glaciers melt; 300K disease

2°C scientists’ goal: extreme heat in Europe; Amazon will be desert / grassland; no coral; 60 mil higher malaria; .5 mil risk of starvation; sea levels rise 7 meters; lack of water; 1/3 of species extinct

4°C only if very weak action: permanent melted arctic; 5 more meter rise; much of Europe becomes a desert

Question 20

Describe case study: extreme weather and climate change in the UK

Answer 20

Likely impacts in 2020s:
Temp increase .2°C per decade
Increased rainfall and wind speeds
Dry areas get drier, wet get more floods
Rising sea levels and more high tides, sinking land
Storm surges could flood / damage £200 bil of infrastructure

Question 21

Describe possible disparities from climate change

Answer 21

Vulnerability factors: exposure, sensitivity, adaptive capacity

More vulnerable groups: young, elderly, disabled, poor, minorities, refugees, carers
At-risk institutions: emergency services, schools, transport, agro, tourism

Problems for islands: coastal erosion, saline in groundwater, deteriorating reefs, out-migration, income loss

Indigenous groups often in effected environments, feel greater effect from lifestyle, often starting with fewer resources and income

Question 22

Describe case study: flooding in Bangladesh

Answer 22

Delta between 3 rivers → occasional flood → fertile soil
Continuous increase in intensity and duration from more precip, higher coastal flood risk
1988 Flood Action Plan: sluice gates, embankments, drainage channels, food shelters

Padma River Islands very vulnerable from extreme precip and floods

Many houses aren’t built from strong materials, not diverse income → can’t cope

Question 23

Describe case study: vulnerability and adaptation in Ghana

Answer 23

Adaptation: adjustment to real or predicted aspects of climate change

Types of adaptation for Ghana:
Infrastructure development (dams, sea walls)
Ecosystem-based (preserve and restore habitats)
Capacity development (education to empower people)

Effects of climate change
Northern Savannah: morbidity and disease, out-migration
Transition: demand on food and water, decreased fishing income
Forest: food and water insecurity, pressure on land
Coastal Savannah: decreased water, burden on women, cholera, migration

Question 24

What is the Kyoto Protocol?

Answer 24

1997, 183 countries agreed to limit GHGs by 5% of 1990 levels by 2012
Came into force in 2005, extended to 2015

Question 25

What is the Paris Agreement?

Answer 25

2015, UN climate change conference in Paris as France had mainly decarbonized energy
174 countries, limit 2°C compared to pre-industrial

Not country-specific (unlike Kyoto) or timed, and no penalties

Question 26

What are GHG emission mitigation strategies?

Answer 26

Reduction of energy consumption / decarbonization: energy efficiency → reduce amt of CO2 to electricity → fuel shift

Reduction of agricultural fertilizers

Geo-engineering: use dimming effect or mirrors in space

Carbon capture + sequestration: capture CO2 at power plant and store underground, capture CO2 in atmosphere currently; unsure about price and effectiveness

Ocean fertilization

Carbon tax: pay for amount of CO2 production, market shift incentive

Carbon trading: emission permits traded between companies; set overall limit

Carbon offset: neutralize emissions by investing elsewhere in renewables

Question 27

What are some climate change adaptation strategies?

Answer 27

We have the technology to sustainably lower emissions
Adaptation is local actions to prevent / minimize impacts

Examples: fuel / energy efficiency, capture landfill gas, crop variety, desalination

Question 28

How can civil societies address climate change?

Answer 28

World Wildlife Fund actions:
Pressure economies to reduce GHGs
Call on govts to sign international agreements (reduce emissions, 2050 renewable)
Climate legislation, new technology

Work with corporations also

Question 29

Describe case study: corporate change mitigation efforts in the USA

Answer 29

States and large companies have adopted climate goals / strategies to reduce emissions
Have sustainable industries, but fossil fuel companies have lobbying power

Levi, Nike, Starbucks, and others formed business for innovative Climate and energy policy for efficiency, decreased emissions