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glaciation Flashcards

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1
Q

what is a glacier?

A

bodies of ice formed from repeated periods of snowfall

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2
Q

what are alpine glaciers?

A

glaciers that form high in the mountains and travel downhill like rivers of ice

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3
Q

what are ice sheets?

A

the largest accumulation of ice, defined as a complete and continuous cover of more than 50,000km2

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4
Q

how big are valley glaciers?

A

they are typically between 10 and 30km in length although in the Karakoram Mountains of Pakistan they are as long as 60km

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5
Q

what was The Pleistocene?

A

the name of the time from 1.8millions years ago to 11,500 years before the present

lots of ice

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6
Q

what was The Holocene?

A

the name of the time from 11,500 years before the present to the present

little ice

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7
Q

how does ice accumulate?

A
  • a fresh layer of snow has a lot of air trapped in between its ice crystals
  • in cold glacial conditions, layers of snow pile up on top of each other and squeeze this air out
  • last year’s snow is called névé or firn, and as it becomes more and more compressed by the layers, it turns to ice
  • process known as accumulation and it is most likely to take place high up in the mountains near the source of a glacier where temps are at their coldest
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8
Q

what does very compressed ice look like?

A

blue

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9
Q

what is last year’s snow called?

A

névé or firn

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10
Q

what are systems?

A

a set of interrelated parts which compose of:

stores
throughputs
inputs
outputs

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11
Q

what are the inputs of a glacial system?

A

potential energy

kinetic energy from wind

thermal energy from sun

deposited materials

precipitation

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12
Q

what are the stores of glacial systems?

A

ice, water, debris

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13
Q

what are the outputs of glacial systems?

A

ablation

calving

sediments

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14
Q

when is a glacier seen as being in a state of equilibrium?

A

if the inputs = the outputs, meaning the glacier stays the same size

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15
Q

what is dynamic equilibrium?

A

where the system ‘self-regulates’

it produces its own response to a disturbance and will gradually change its form until equilibrium is restored

glaciers are in a state of dynamic equilibrium

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16
Q

what are examples of positive feedback in glaciers?

A

melting ice - less ice reflecting sun’s energy back (lower albedo) - climate warms - glacier retreats further - melting ice,,,

ice mass grows - more ice reflecting sun’s energy back (higher albedo) - climate cools further - more accumulation of ice - etc

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17
Q

what are continental glaciers?

A

massive glaciers that cover entire landmasses, moving outwards from the centre

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18
Q

what is calving?

A

large pieces of glacier break off when glacier reaches the ocean

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19
Q

how is a u-shaped valley formed by glaciers?

A

they grind down the rock on both the sides and bottom of the area where they are traveling

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20
Q

how are glacial striations formed?

A

as glaciers grind over the surface bedrock, they leave behind deep scratches in the rock

these record the direction of ice flow in the rock

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21
Q

what is glacial till?

A

when a glacier melts, it deposits piles of unsorted and unlayered sediments, known as glacial till

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22
Q

what is the terminal morraine?

A

marks the farthest a glacier travelled before melting

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23
Q

what are glacial erratics?

A

large boulders are transported over long distances. when a glacier melts, it deposits these boulders

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24
Q

what is a drumlin?

A

an elongated hill of deposited glacial till

the shape of a drumlin reveals the direction that the glacier was moving

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25
Q

how is a glacial kettle (aka kettle lake) formed?

A

block of ice dropped by glacier

ice block becomes surrounded by sediment

ice block melts

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26
Q

how is an outwash plain formed?

A

when glaciers melt, the meltwater forms streams, which deposit sorted sediments, creating a region known as an outwash plain

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27
Q

what does englacial mean?

A

within the glacier

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28
Q

what does subglacial mean?

A

beneath the glacier

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29
Q

what does proglacial mean?

A

in front of the glacier

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30
Q

what is the pressure melting point?

A

the point where ice melts due to the pressure from above

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31
Q

what are niche glaciers?

A

usually only tens of metres in size, and are found on steep slopes

they originated as snow patches and remain as small wedges of shallow ice

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32
Q

what are cirque glaciers?

A

up to hundreds of metres in size

they develop from snow patches in hollows and grow into armchair-shaped basins

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33
Q

what are valley glaciers?

A

formed when ice moves out of the cirque into pre-existing valleys

they are up to 60km long in the Karakoram Mountains of Pakistan

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34
Q

what are piedmont glaciers?

A

occur where valley glaciers advance out of a mountain into a wider lowland region

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35
Q

what are ice caps

A

small ice sheets, less than 50,000km2, which bury the landscape

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36
Q

what are unconstrained glaciers?

A

freely forming ice masses not affected by the surrounding landscape

include ice sheets and ice caps as well as streams + ice domes

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37
Q

what are constrained glaciers?

A

form between mountain peaks, valleys etc

shape, structure and size of them are influenced by surrounding landforms

include valley glaciers, cirque glaciers and piedmont glaciers

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38
Q

what is a mountain glacier?

A

surrounded by mountainous terrain on all sides

eg in Alaska + Arctic Canada

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39
Q

what are outlet glaciers?

A

ice channels that originate from ice caps, ice sheets or ice fields

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40
Q

what are tidewater glaciers?

A

river of ice that forms when a glacier flows to the coast

the edge of tidewater glaciers that leads the glacial flow slightly lifts upwards and floats into the ocean, creating towering ice cliffs

notorious for calving

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41
Q

what are cirque glaciers?

A

smallest type of glaciers found in cirques

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42
Q

what are rock glaciers?

A

mass of ice predominantly hidden beneath rock debris

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43
Q

what are hanging glaciers?

A

form in hanging valleys

originate high up in the mountains + flow down its sides and end abruptly

pieces break away, fall and roll down slopes, resulting in avalanches

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44
Q

what is glacier mass balance?

A

the balance between inputs and outputs, accumulation,

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45
Q

what is positive and negative mass balance?

A

if accumulation exceeds ablation, a glacier gains mass

negative mass balance is vice versa

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46
Q

what is lithology?

A

describes the physical and chemical composition of rocks

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47
Q

what is the impact of lithology on glaciated environment?

A

basalt is made of dense interlocking crystals, and is highly resistant + more likely to form prominent glacial landforms such as aretes and pyramidals

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48
Q

how does structure impact the glaciated environment?

A

structure includes the angle of dip of rocks and can have a strong influence on valley side profiles

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49
Q

what is latitude?

A

how far north or south

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50
Q

how does latitude impact glaciated environment?

A

66degrees north and south is dry with little seasonal variation = large stable ice sheets

the higher the latitude , the more apparent the cold, dry climates with little seasonal variation are

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51
Q

how does altitude affect the glaciated environment?

A

increase in altitude = decrease in temp, so glaciers are even found near the equator in the Andes

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52
Q

how does relief impact the glaciated environment?

A

the steeper the relief of the landscape, the greater the resultant force of gravity, and the more energy a glacier will have to move downslope

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53
Q

what is aspect?

A

the compass direction that a slope faces

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54
Q

how does aspect impact a glaciated environment?

A

if the aspect of a slope faces away from the general direction of the sun, temperatures are likely to remain below 0 for longer, so melting occurs

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55
Q

how does wind impact a glaciated environment?

A

has a key role in transporting material and accumulating snowfall. can influence erosion and other landform processes

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56
Q

what does fresh snow look like?

A

consists of flakes with an open, feathery structure and a low density of around 0.05g/cm3

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57
Q

what happens with each new snow fall?

A

compresses and compacts the layer of snow beneath, causing the air to be expelled, and converting low density snow into high density ice

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58
Q

what is firn?

A

snow that survives one summer

has a density of 0.4g/cm3

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59
Q

what is diagenesis?

A

the process by which snow becomes ice due to compression

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60
Q

what does true ice look like?

A

bluish colour

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61
Q

what is rain-splash erosion?

A

raindrops can have an erosive effect on hillslope

on a 5 degree slope, about 60% of the movement is downslope. This figure increases to 95% on a 25 degree slope

it is most effective on slopes between 33degree and 45degrees, and at the start of a rainfall event when soil is still loose

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62
Q

what are falls?

A

occur on steep slopes (greater than 70 degrees), especially bare rock faces where joints are exposed

initial cause of the fall may be weathering, such as freeze-thaw or disintegration, or erosion prising open lines of weaknesses

once rocks are detatched, they fall under the influence of gravity

if the fall is short, it produces a relatively straight scree. If it is long, it forms a concave scree

eg Wastwater Screes, Lake District

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63
Q

What are slides?

A

occur when an entire mass of material moves along a slip plane. These include:

  • rockslides and landslides of any material, rock or regolith
  • rotational slides, which produce a series of massive steps or terraces

occur when there is a combination of weak rocks, steep slopes and active undercutting. often caused by a change in water content of a slope, or by very cold conditions

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64
Q

what are slip planes?

A

occur at a number of locations:

  • at the junction of two layers
  • at a fault line
  • where there is a joint
  • along a bedding plane
  • at the point beneath the surface where the shear stress becomes greater than the shear strength

is a concave curve and as the slide occurs, the mass will be rotated backwards

weak rocks, such as clay, have little shear strength and are particularly vulnerable to the development of slip planes

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65
Q

example of a rock slide

A

6th strongest earthquake in US in Montana 1959, close to this epicentre was a slope of schists and gneiss with slippery mica and clay was supported by a base of dolomite

earthquake boke the dolomite

huge volume of rock (400m and 1000m long) slid into Madison River Valley

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66
Q

what are landslides?

A

loose rocks, stones and soil have a tendency to move downslope whenever the downslope force exceeds the resistance produced by friction and cohesion

when material moves downslope as a result of shear failure at the boundary of the moving mass, it is termed as landslide

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67
Q

what are slumps and flows?

A

occur on weaker rocks, especially clay, and have a rotational movement along a curved slip plane

clay absorbs water, becomes saturated and exceeds its liquid limit, then flows along the slip plane

frequently, the base of a cliff is undercut and weakened by erosion, thereby reducing its strength

by contrast, flows are more continuous, less jerky and are more likely to contort the mass into a new form

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68
Q

what are avalanches?

A

rapid movements of snow, ice, rock or earth down a slope

common in mountainous areas

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69
Q

what is a dry avalanche?

A

newly fallen snow may fall off older snow, especially in winter

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70
Q

what is a wet avalanche?

A

in spring, partially melted snow moves

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71
Q

when do avalanches frequently occur?

A

on steep slopes over 22 degrees, especially on north facing slopes where the lack of sun limits the stability of snow

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72
Q

what is a debris avalanche?

A

rapid mass movement of sediments, often associated with saturated ground conditions

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73
Q

what is mass movement?

A

the movement of material downslope as the result of gravity

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74
Q

what is a corrie?

A

(aka cirques/cwms)

an armchair shaped hollow found on the side of the mountain. this is where a glacier forms.

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75
Q

how is a corrie formed?

A

snow collects in a sheltered hollow

the back wall gets steeper due to freeze-thaw weathering and plucking; the base becomes deeper bc abrasion

glacier moved out of hollow via rotational slip

less erosion at the front of the glacier means a corrie lip is formed

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76
Q

how is a tarn formed

A

a lake forms in a corrie after the glacier has melted

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77
Q

example of a corrie?

A

Cwm Idwal

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78
Q

what is an arête?

A

narrow ridge of land created when 2 corrie erode back towards eachother

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79
Q

example of an arête?

A

The Sawtooth, Southern Rocky Mountains

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80
Q

what is a pyramidal peak?

A

three or more corrie erode back towards each other- at the top of a mountain a pointed peak is left behind

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81
Q

example of a pyramidal peak?

A

Ketil in Greenland

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82
Q

what is a hanging valley?

A

deeper glacier ice in main valley erodes vertically downwards more rapidly than thinner ice in the tributary valleys, often producing a waterfall

is a tributary valley high above the main valley. river descends into main valley as a waterfall

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83
Q

example of a hanging valley?

A

Yosemite Falls, California

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84
Q

what is a U-Shaled Valley

A

aka trough

during periods when earths climate cools, glaciers form and begin to flow downslope.

they occupy the low V-Shaped valleys once created by rivers

as glaciers flow through the valleys, they concentrate erosive action over the entire valley, widening its floor and oversteepening it’s walls.

after the glacier retreats, it’s leaves behind a flat bottomed, steep walled U Shaped Valley

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85
Q

example of a u shaped valley

A

Yosemite Valley

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86
Q

what is a truncated spur?

A

valley glaciers remove the ends of interlocking spurs by plucking + abrasion

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87
Q

example of a truncated spur

A

The Devil’s Point in upper Glen Dee

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88
Q

what is a misfit stream?

A

after glaciation they can occupy the floor of the U-Shaped calley

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89
Q

example of a misfit stream

A

kali river, india

90
Q

what is a ribbon lake?

A

long narrow lane in a glacial trough

areas of increased erosion on valley floor due to the confluence of glaciers, weaker rocks or well-joined rocks

this over deepens this part of the valley floor to form a basin, which later fills with meltwater

91
Q

example of a ribbon lake?

A

windermere, england

92
Q

what is a roche mountonnee

A

a more resistant rock, which remains after ice abrasion on the stoss (up glacier) side + plucking on the lee (down-glacier) side

93
Q

example of a roche mountonnee

A

mount iron, wanaka, nz

94
Q

what are striations?

A

rocks scarred with thin parallel scratches

formed when sub- or en-glacial moraine is dragged along exposed rock

95
Q

what is an ellipsoidal basin?

A

major erosional landforms created by ice sheets eg the Laurentide Ice Sheet

96
Q

where are cold glaciers generally found?

A

around the poles or in areas of extremely high latitude

these glaciers are frozen throughout and tend to experience very little movement

97
Q

where do warm based glaciers tend to be found?

A

in areas of high altitude eg the Alps

exist in areas where temperatures can fluctuate around freezing and as a result the base of the glacier can melt. this layer of meltwater enables them to move relatively rapidly

98
Q

what is the difference between weathering and erosion?

A

erosion is the surface processes that remove soil, rock or dissolved material from the location on the earths crust THEN TRANSPORT TO ANOTHER

WHEREAS weathering occurs in situ (in the same place)

99
Q

what is plucking?

A

when meltwater from a glacier freezes around lumps of cracked and broken rocks

when ice moves downhill, rick is plucked from the bedrock

100
Q

what is abrasion?

A

when rock is frozen tk the base and the back of the glacier scrapes the bed rock

can lead to development of rock flour

101
Q

what is rock flour?

A

very fine grounded rock, which appears milky white and is often carried by glacial rivers and streams

102
Q

how does the presence of basal debris influence the rate of plucking/abrasion?

A

rates of abrasion increase with the amount of basal debris, up to a point where it produces great friction, which slows down rates of movement

103
Q

how does debris size and shape influence the rate of plucking and abrasion?

A

larger debris is more effective in abrasion as they exert more downward pressure which is proportional to their greater weight

angular debris is also more effective, as pressure is concentrated onto a smaller area of debris-bedrock interface

104
Q

how does the relative hardness of particles and bedrock influence the rate of plucking and abrasion?

A

the more the bedrock is resistant to the debris, the less abrasion that takes place

105
Q

how does ice thickness influence the rate of plucking and abrasion?

A

the greater the thickness of overlying ice, the greater the pressure exertion on the basal debris, leading tk greater rates of abrasion

when it’s roughly 100m-200m thick, pressure becomes too great, and there is too much friction for much movement to occur

106
Q

how does basal water pressure influence the rate of plucking and abrasion?

A

the presence of a layer of meltwater at the base of a glacier is vital if sliding (and therefore abrasion) is to take place

if water is under pressure, the glacier can be buoyed up, reducing pressure + erosion

107
Q

how does the sliding of basal ice influence rates of abrasion and plucking?

A

determined whether abrasion can take place, as it requires basal sliding to move the embedded debris across rock surfaces.

greater sliding = greater potential erosion

108
Q

how does the movement of debris to the base influence rates of plucking + abrasion?

A

abrasion wears away basal rock, so needs to be replenished for erosion to be effective

109
Q

how does the removal of fine debris influence rates of plucking and abrasion?

A

to maintain high rates of erosion, fine debris (rock flour) needs to be removed, to allow larger rock to abrade the bedrock. this is mainly done by meltwater

110
Q

what did Boulton discover about rates of erosion?

A

(1974) measured erosion beneath the Iceland glacier

discovered that where ice was 40m thick and velocity was 9.6m/yr, then marble eroded @ 3mm/year.

when velocity increased to 15.4m/yr, then erosion increased to 3.75 even though ice was 8m thinner

suggests that velocity is more important than ice thickness in terms of rates of erosion

111
Q

what is nivation?

A

the process that occurs under a snow patch

primary processes are mass wasting and freeze thaw, in which fallen snow gets compacted into firn or névé

112
Q

what are ways that bedrock can be transported after erosion/weathering?

A

mass movement

through Aeolian deposits

through volcanic eruptions

by the glacier itself (supraglacial, englacial or subglacial)

113
Q

what is deposition?

A

the dropping of material carried by the glacier

114
Q

what is glaciated material called?

A

in general, it is called drift

it can be divided into till (material deposited by the glacier directly) and outwash (which is material deposited by melt water)

115
Q

what are the two types of till?

A

lodgement till (material deposited by advancing ice)

ablation till (material deposited by melting ice)

116
Q

examples of mechanical weathering in glacial environments?

A

freeze-thaw, frost shattering, pressure release

117
Q

what is freeze thaw?

A

water enters cracks/ joints and expands by nearly 10% when it freezes

exerts pressure on rock, causing it to split or pieces to break

water fills cracks, process repeats

118
Q

what is frost shattering?

A

at extremely low temperatures, water trapped in rock pores freezes and expands.

this creates stress which disintegrates rock to small particles

119
Q

what is pressure release?

A

when the weight of overlying ice in a glacier is lost due to melting, the underlying rock expands and fractures parallel to the surface.

this is significant in the exposure of sub-surface rocks such as granite and is also known as DILATION.

120
Q

what is oxidation?

A

some minerals in rocks react w oxygen, either in the air or in water.

iron is especially susceptible to this process. it becomes soluble under extremely acidic conditions and the original structure is destroyed. it often attacks the iron-rich cements that bind sand grains together in sandstone

121
Q

three processes of chemical weathering in glacial environments?

A

oxidation, carbonation, solution

122
Q

what is carbonation

A

rainwater combined with dissolved CO2 from the atmosphere to produce a weak carbonic acid. this reacts w calcium carbonate in rocks such as limestone to produce calcium bicarbonate, which is soluble

123
Q

what is solution?

A

some salts are soluble in water. other minerals, such as iron, are only soluble in very acidic water, w a pH of about 3. Any process by which a mineral dissolves in water is known as a solution, although mineral specific processes, such as carbon, can be identified.

124
Q

two processes of biological weathering in glacial environments?

A

tree roots and organic acids

125
Q

how do tree roots cause weathering?

A

tree roots grow into cracks or joints in rocks and exert outward pressure

when trees topple, their roots can also exert leverage in rock and soil, bringing them to the surface and exposing them to further weathering

126
Q

how do organic acids cause weathering in glacial environments?

A

produced during decomposition of plant and animal litter

cause soil water to become more acidic and react with some minerals in a process called CHELATION.

127
Q

what is terminal moraine?

A

a ridge of till extending across a glacial trough

usually steeper on up valley-side and tends to be crescent shaped, reaching further down-valley in the centre

marks the maximum extent of glacier

128
Q

what is the shape of terminal moraine dependent on?

A

amount of material carried

rate of ice movement

rate of ablation

129
Q

example of a terminal moraine?

A

Cromer Ridge, Norfolk, England

is 14km long

130
Q

how is lateral moraine formed?

A

debris frost shattered from valley slopes

material falls onto the surface of a glacier + is carried along its edges

when melting takes place, an embankment of material is left against valley sides as it sinks to the ground and is deposited

131
Q

example of lateral moraine?

A

Athabasca Glacier, Canada

132
Q

what is the climate of the Nant Ffrancon Valley?

A

15,000- 20,000yrs ago, the region was experiencing the cold and dry conditions of a glaciation, under a glacier. since then, the climate has warmed

55% less snow fell in 2004 than in 1994

slopes of Snowdon has one of the wettest climates in GB - annual average of more than 200 inches of precipitation

North Wales has temps ranging from -5 to 30 degrees Celsius

133
Q

what is the geology of the Nant Ffrancon Valley?

A

rocks which today make up Snowdon and its neighbouring mountains were formed in the Ordovician Period

458 to 457 million years ago, a volcanic caldera formed and produced ash flows and rhyolitic tuff - resistant, hard geology

changes in sea level and metamorphic processes meant slate developed, which is an important part in the human activity of the landscape

134
Q

example of an arete in Nant Ffrancon?

A

Y Gribin

separates Cwm Cneifion and Cwm Bochlwyd

135
Q

example of a cwm?

A

cwm idwal

floor has an altitude of 375m– is a lot deeper and lower than other corries

lies along a line of geological weakness

136
Q

example of a tarn in Nant Ffrancon

A

Llyn Idwal

has an unusual linear shape

137
Q

example of truncated spurs in Nant Ffrancon

A

end of Gribin Ridge, by Cwm Idwal

138
Q

where can terminal moraine be found in Nant Ffrancon

A

in the mouth of Cwm Idwal as it falls away to the Ogwen valley below

139
Q

where can lateral moraine be found in Nant Ffrancon

A

runs parallel to Llyn Idwal along its western side

140
Q

where can a ribbon lake be found in Nant Ffranon?

A

Llyn Ogwen

141
Q

where is a U-Shaped Valley in Snowdonia?

A

the Ogwen Valley

142
Q

location of minnesota?

A

a state in the Upper Midwestern Region of the United States

12th largest US state

home to 10, 000 lakes

143
Q

glacial history of minnesota?

A
  • Minnesota’s present landscape is the result largely of glacial activity during the Quaternary period (2 million years ago to the present)
  • During this time the gigantic Laurentide ice sheet advanced and retreated with climate changes. It was centred in what is now the Hudson Bay, and during colder periods, it extended southward across the upper Midwest
144
Q

geology of minnesota?

A
  • The landscape of Minnesota is part of the Laurentian (or Canadian) Shield.
  • Oldest rocks lie in alternating belts in the northern half of the state + much of the Minnesota River Valley. The belts are of volcanic and sedimentary rocks; granitic rock materials lie in the areas between the belts
  • Metamorphic gneiss crops out along the Minnesota River Valley dating back 3600 million years

-Volcanic and sedimentary rocks began their formation 2700 million years ago, when lava escaped through rifts in what was then the sea floor

  • Volcanic formations lie throughout Minnesota’s portion of the Laurentian Shield, some buried deep beneath glacial deposits.
  • Volcanic debris released into nearby seas later settled on the sea floor, forming massive layers of sedimentary rock. During this period, tectonic activity folded many of these rock formations and formed faults
  • Many of volcanic rocks have metamorphosed to greenstone. At the same time, tectonic compression created a range of mountains several kilometres high in northern Minnesota
145
Q

climate glaciation of minnesota?

A
  • Has been sculpted by glacial ice for the last 2 million years
  • Current landscape greatly influenced by most recent glaciation, and the corresponding melting of ice
  • About 75, 000 years ago, four main lobes extending from ice sheet spread across Minnesota. They advanced and retreated several times and consequently transported and deposited till over wide areas
  • Different origins of different lobes resulted in tills w differing characteristics and materials, and therefore it is possible, due to differences in lithologies across Minnesota, to determine the lobe that deposited certain landforms.
146
Q

latitude of minnesota?

A

43 to 49 Degrees North

147
Q

relief + aspect + altitude of minnesota?

A

Laurentide ice sheet was 1km thick in places

Lobes had massive erosional impact on the landscape

High mountains were worn down by 500-700m

The far SE wasn’t as extensively covered so a more varied steep hill and deep valley topography exists

Mean elevation of US is 2,500 feet. Mean elevation of Minnesota is 1,200 feet, making it neither one of the highest nor the lowest states on average, but far below the national average

148
Q

erosional impact of minnesota ice sheet?

A

Large ellipsoidal basin was created by erosion and is now studded with thousands of lakes, such as Upper and Lower Red Lakes in northern Minnesota

In the Arrowhead region of the northeast, the erosional basin was particularly deep as the earlier tectonic tilting of the landscape exposed weak shale rocks, which were eroded much more rapidly than the resistant volcanic rocks around them.

Lobes abraded striations in bare rock outcrops of gneiss and greenstone

Far southeast of the state not extensively covered by ice sheet so retains a more varied landscape of steep hills and deep valleys. Most of the rivers draining this area are tributaries of the Minnesota and Mississippi Rivers

Erosional impact of the Laurentide Ice Sheet was considerable and shaped the overall landscape. However, continental ice sheet erosion does not produce the spectacular landforms associated with valley glaciers and alpine glaciation.

149
Q

depositional impact of minnesota ice sheet?

A

Many of the till deposits in the west of the state have been found by borehole drilling to be more than 100m thick. South-west = boreholes 160m deep still had not reached bedrock

Wadena Lobe advanced from northeast Canada and reached just south of Minneapolis. Till deposited is characteristically red and sandy, being derived from the red sandstone and shales to the north and north-east.

Wadena Lobe first deposited the Alexandria Moraine, formed the drumlin fields spanning Otter Tail, Wadena and Todd counties, and finally formed the Itasca moraine

Ground moraine with reddish, iron-rich sediments extends from St Cloud north-eastward. The glaciers produced formed a set of terminal moraines which extend from northwest of St Cloud into the Twin Cities.

The last advance of the Rainy and Superior Lobes left a coarse textured till containing abundant fragments of basalts, gabbro, granite, red sandstone, slate and greenstone strewn across the north-eastern half of Minnesota and as far south as the Twin Cities

Des Moines Lobe deposited till that is coloured tan to buff, and is clay-rich and calcareous because of shale and limestone rocks at its source to the northwest

In the southwest, Prairie Coteau has a fine example of an end moraine

150
Q

pro glacial lakes in minnesota?

A

Edge of the giant ice sheet and its associated lobes also dammed the natural drainage of the area, creating several proglacial lakes

Largest was Lake Agassiz

Glaciers to the north blocked natural northward drainage of the area. As the ice melted, a proglacial lake developed south of the ice. At its maximum this lake covered 440,000km2. The water overflowed the watershed at Brown’s Valley, drained through the Traverse Gap + cut the present Minnesota River valley

The river that drained from Lake Agassiz is called the Glacial River Warren. It flowed over the top of a recessional moraine at Brown’s Valley.

When the lake finally drained it left behind fertile silt deposits producing the rich farmland of the Red River valley

151
Q

what is the Des Moines lobe?

A

the last tongue of ice to flow from the Laurentide ice sheet across the state, it flowed from northwest to southeast and reached Des Moines, Iowa, spreading clayey yellow-brown to gray glacial sediment and shale, limestone and other rocks from Saskatche-wan and Manitoba

152
Q

what is the Rainy Lobe?

A

a tongue of ice that flowed from the Laurentide ice sheet to the southwest along the highlands above Lake Superior that deposited a grayish brown, stony sediment

153
Q

what is the Superior lobe?

A

a tongue of ice that flowed from the Laurentide ice sheet through Lake Superior that deposited reddish brown, sandy to clayey sediment, with primarily red, black and gray rocks

154
Q

what is the Wadena lobe?

A

the first ice advance of the last glaciation, this tongue of ice flowed from Laurentide ice sheet to the north depositing brown to gray glacial sediment. Its ground moraine preserves a large area of streamlined hills – the Wadena Drumfield

155
Q

what is the Des Moines Till?

A

marks the final advance of glaciers across Minnesota during the Wisconsin glaciation period, between 75, 000 to 14,000 years ago

the glacier left behind a rich deposit of limestone, shale and granite fragments.

the sediment contains arsenic, which can leach into aquifers

156
Q

when did the last major ice age end?

A

11,000 years ago

157
Q

when was the last glacial maximum?

A

18,000 years ago

158
Q

what does glacio-fluvial mean?

A

relating to meltwater from a glacier

159
Q

what are geomorphic processes?

A

processes that help to shape the landscape

160
Q

what does melted water have the ability to do in interglacials?

A

has the ability to erode, transport and deposit material

can form landforms that are distinctively different to glacial geomorphic processes

161
Q

how are glacio-fluvial deposits different to till?

A
  • generally smaller, as meltwater has less energy to carry large materials
  • smoother and rounder, as attrition in glacio-fluvial streams rounds the particles
  • sorted; larger material found upland and smaller material is carried downstream
  • stratified; areas of deposition can show season stratification. in winter months larger pieces of material are deposited and in summer smaller pieces of material are deposited. this creates a layered effect
162
Q

what is a kame?

A

a hill or hummock composed of stratified sand and gravel laid down by glacial meltwater

163
Q

what are kame deltas? and example?

A

some formed by englacial or supraglacial streams

eg in East Lothian, Scotland

164
Q

what are kame terraces? + example

A

ridges of material running along edge of valley floor.

formed when supraglacial streams on edge of glacier pick up and carry lateral moraine, then is later deposited on valley floor as glacier retreats

the streams form due to melting of ice warmed in contact with valley sides bc of the friction and heat retaining properties of valley side slopes

eg Kingsdale Valley, Yorkshire Dales

165
Q

what is an esker + example?

A

is a long sinuous ridge composed of stratified sand and gravel laid down by glacial meltwater

formed when material is deposited in sub-glacial tunnels as the supply of meltwater decreases at the end of the glacial period

eg the trim esker near Dublin

166
Q

why are eskers beaded?

A

sub glacial streams may carry huge amounts of debris under pressure in confined tunnels at the base of the glacier

some scientists argue that deposition occurs when the pressure is released and meltwater emerges at the glacial snout, so eskers become beaded when the glacial snout retreats.

others argue that heads are a result of greater load carried by summer meltwater

167
Q

what is an out wash plain + example?

A

is a flat expanse of sediment in the pro-glacial area

as meltwater streams gradually lose energy as they enter lowland areas beyond the ice front, they deposit their load

outwash plains are typically drained by braided streams (river channels subdivided by numerous islets and channels). deposited sorted bars can become vegetated and stabilised, or modified in the next higher impact event

eg on the south coast of Iceland, fed by streams from Gigjökull and Solheimajökull

168
Q

what happens to fluvial-glacial landscapes during extended periods of cold?

A

glaciers grow and often bulldoze over fluvio-glacial deposits. these deposits are then lost or reformed into a new landform elsewhere

169
Q

what impact does a warming climate have on fluvio-glacial landscapes?

A

leads to more glaciers melting and as they retreat depositional deatures will be uncovered, especially eskers and kames

170
Q

what will happen if future climates warm rapidly?

A

rapid ice melt could see large melting events take place and large bodies of water transport and deposit material vast distances, creating extremely large landforms

eg the jokulhaups events in Iceland

171
Q

what are periglacial environments like?

A

have a significant cover of snow and ice but not all year round eg Scandinavia

temperature is frequently or constantly below freezing but not covered by ice

contain a layer of permafrost on or below the surface

172
Q

where do periglacial environments tend to be?

A

high latitudes + altitudes

eg the northern parts of asia, north america and europe

found on high altitude plateau areas eg the Tibetan plateau in Asia

in the interior of land masses, periglacial conditions exist at lower altitudes and lower latitudes because of the effect of continentality eg Siberia

periglacial conditions exist around ice masses in mountain ranges

173
Q

what are precipitation levels like in periglacial environments?

A

low due to cold air being unable to hold moisture

affected by high pressure conditions which reduces rainfall— in the arctic rainfall declined away from oceans as travels westerly losing moisture

174
Q

what is the albedo like in periglacial environments?

A

they reflect a lot of solar radiation ( average absorption is 10-20% on snow and ice)

175
Q

what is permafrost?

A

ground (including rock or soil) at or below the freezing point of water for two or more years

176
Q

where is permafrost located?

A

most is located in high latitudes, but alpine permafrost may exist at high altitudes in much lower latitudes

177
Q

what is the active layer?

A

the near surface layer in a periglacial environment which seasonally freezes and thaws

normally 5 - 10 cm in depth

in summer the active layer melts and enables plants to grow, this melted water can lead to boggy anaerobic conditions

in winter the active layer freezes and becomes like the permafrost

178
Q

what are the two main periglacial processes?

A

freeze thaw and frost heave

179
Q

what is talik?

A

unfrozen ground

180
Q

what is frost heave?

A

a subsurface process that leads to vertical sorting of material in the active layer.

Stones within the fine material heat up and cool down faster than their surroundings as they have a lower specific heat capacity

as temperatures fall, water beneath the stones freezes and expands, pushing stones upwards towards the surface.

ground ice also pushes finer material upwards causing a domed surface

181
Q

how is patterned ground formed?

A

as a result of frost heave, large stones eventually reach the surface and the ground surface is domed

the stones then move radially, under gravity, down each domed surface to form a network of stone polygons, typically 1-2m in diameter

on slope angles of 3-50 degrees, the larger stones move greater distances downslope and the polygons become elongated into stone garlands

on slopes of 60 degrees and over, the polygons lose their shape and stone stripes develop

182
Q

example of patterned ground?

A

in the area around Barrow in Alaska

183
Q

what is a pingo?

A

rounded ice-cored hills that can be as much as 90m in height and 800m in diameter

they grow at rates of a couple cm/year

essentially formed by ground ice which develops during winter months as temperatures fall

184
Q

how are open-system pingos formed?

A

form in valley bottoms where water from surrounding slopes collects under artesian pressure. the overlying surface material is forced to dome upwards

common in East Greenland

185
Q

what are closed system pingos?

A

develop beneath lake beds where the supply of water is from the immediate local area

as permafrost grows during cold periods, groundwater beneath a lake is trapped by the permafrost below and the frozen lake above. the saturated talik, or unfrozen ground, is compressed by the expanding ice around it and is hydrostatic pressure

when the talik itself eventually freezes, it forces up the overlying sediments

for example, there is over 1400 closed system pingos in the Mackenzie Delta of Canada

186
Q

how is patterned ground modified?

A

as temps rose at the end of the periglacial period, patterned ground was often colonised by vegetation, making it hard to find and identify

over time, mass movement by creep also degrades the frost heaved domes, making the landform less obvious

patterned ground around Leedon Tor, Dartmoor, is now mainly covered by a layer of soil and grass

187
Q

how are pingos modified?(+example)

A

pingos collapse when temps rise and the ice core thaws. When this happens, the top of the dome collapses, leaving a rampart surrounding a circular depression called an OGNIP

due to the thawing of permafrost in Britain, only the remains of the rampart may be seen

eg one can be seen at Llanberis in north Wales, which is about 15m in diameter

188
Q

when was the Trans Alaskan Pipeline built?

A

between 1974 and 1977

189
Q

why was the TransAlaskan Pipeline built?

A

after the 1973 oil crisis caused a sharp rise in oil prices in the United States. This ride made exploration of the Prudhoe Bay oil field economically feasible.

Environmental, legal and political debates followed the discovery of oil at Prudhoe Bay in 1968, and the pipeline was built only after the oil crisis provoked the passage of legalization designed to remove legal challenges to the project.

To transport the oil to the ice-free port of Valdez, a pipeline was built, as other options like ice breaking boats were not viable

190
Q

how long is the pipeline?

A

1300 km

191
Q

how much oil does the pipeline transport per day?

A

about 500,000 barrels of oil per day

192
Q

how are material flows affected through the use of gravel pads?

A

gravel extracted from stream and river beds, and used as an insulating base layer for road construction

the loss of gravel from the river systems alters the rate at which gravel is transported and deposited further downstream. It can also affect the equilibrium between erosional and depositional processes in the river system

193
Q

how are hydrological processes affected by gravel extraction?

A

a report into gravel extraction from a glacial outwash aquifer near Palmer found that groundwater levels fell by more than a metre in an area extending over 2km from the extraction site

194
Q

how are energy flows affected by the pipeline by the release of and burning of gas during drilling?

A

some gases are burnt in a process called flaring, which releases mainly CO2 into the atmosphere.

Others, including methane, are vented without burning into the atmosphere.

contributes to an enhanced greenhouse effect with higher levels of terrestrial radiation being trapped in the lower atmosphere, raising temperatures

195
Q

how are energy flows in periglacial environments affected by the production of heat?

A

by the production of heat from the extraction and transportation processes, as well as from the associated infrastructure.

an investigation into the urban heat island in the small town of Barrow, Alaska found that mean temperatures were on average 2.2 degrees celcius higher than the surrounding rural area. A maximum difference of 6 degrees was measured on a particularly calm day

heat from domestic heating systems in poorly insulated buildings is a major contributor to the heat island effect and a strong correlation was found between temperature differences and oil production rates in the nearby oil field,

Energy released to the environment by human activities also affects geomorphic processes, with 9% fewer days of temperature fluctuations around 0 degrees (ie freeze thaw cycles) recorded since drilling began

196
Q

what are drunken trees?

A

as the permafrost melts, it causes a lot of erosion. A lot of trees cannot stand straight as the ground buckles and sinks. These trees are often called drunken trees

197
Q

how can drunken trees benefit some native communities?

A

more downed trees could mean more driftwood flowing into rivers and towards the coast

198
Q

what is a thermokast?

A

ground that collapses as a result of melting permafrost

199
Q

what percentage of the land in the middle boreal zone in Alaska is showing signs of drunken trees?

A

around 7-8%

200
Q

what percentage of Alaska is permafrost found beneath?

A

85%

201
Q

what is usteq?

A

a catastrophic form of permafrost thaw collapse that occurs when frozen ground disintegrates under the compounding influences of thawing permafrost, flooding and erosion

202
Q

how is the permafrost structurally important to the soils of Alaska?

A

its thawing causes landslides, ground subsidence and erosion, as well as lake disappearances, new lake development and saltwater encroachment, into aquifers and surface waters

203
Q

what is abrupt thaw?

A

the warming of small patches of frozen ground that contain larger veins of ice will release far more emissions than once thought

will probably hit 5% of Arctic permafrost

204
Q

what is thermokast?

A

a landscape dominated by the surface depressions due to the thawing of ground ice

less than 5m deep and 1-2km wide

205
Q

what is a thermokast lake?

A

a body of freshwater, usually shallow, formed in a depression formed by thawing ice rich permafrost

present on the Alaskan coastal plain

206
Q

what is an alas?

A

flat floored, steep sided depressions ranging from 5-50m in depth and 100m to 15km in length

207
Q

what is The Grande Dixence Dam?

A

a concrete gravity dam on the Dixence at the head of the Val d’Heremence in the canton of Valais in Switzerland

At 285m high, it is the tallest gravity dam in the world, and is part of the Cleuson-Dixence Complex

208
Q

what is the purpose of the Grande Dixence Scheme?

A

primary purpose of hydroelectric power generation

dam fuels 4 power stations, totaling the installed capacity to 2,069MW, generating approximately 2,000GWh annually, enough to power 400,000 Swiss households

209
Q

what lake does the Grande Dixence Dam withhold?

A

Lac Des DIx

the reservoir receives its water from four different pumping stations; the Z’Mutt, Stafel, Ferpecle, Arolla.

210
Q

when was The Grande Dixence Dam constructed?

A

construction on the dam in 1950 and was completed in 1961, before officially commissioning in 1965

211
Q

impacts of the Grande Dixence Dam on the glacial landscape?

A

15% of the water available at Grande Dixence is used to deal with the problems of sedimentation.

when water is stored behind the dam, the lack of flow means a loss in energy and the deposition of sediment load behind the dam at rates of 20-40cm/yr

sediment concentrations are >300mg/l above the dam, 20-50mg/l just below the dam, and >20mg/l 3km downstream of the dam

to solve this problem, some of the water in the reservoir is used to purge the sediment, flushing it out and moving it downstream. At these times the water has high levels of turbidity, and sediment concentrations up to 20,000mg/l

212
Q

how were aggregates for the dam obtained?

A

locally from deposits of moraines in adjacent valleys

213
Q

environmental impacts of the Grande Dixence Dam?

A

impact has been minimised, partly to ensure that the area remains an attractive environment for walkers, cyclists and hikers

pumping stations and power plants a largely built underground or are well concealed to retain the aesthetics of the location.

however, the reduced flow in the Borgne River, a tributary of the Rhone, below the dam has resulted in higher concentrations of pollutants at Les Haudere, from both agricultural and domestic sources

214
Q

what is turbidity?

A

the cloudiness of a fluid caused by large numbers of individual particles in suspension

215
Q

example of a roche mountonnee in nant ffrancon valley

A

on the valley floor lies a protrusion of a resistant, volcanic dyke about 5m in height.

as the glacier moved over it, the up-glaicer side was smoothed by abrasion, and the down-glaicer side was steepened by plucking, creating a roche mountonnee at maes caradoc

216
Q

how has the nant ffrancon valley recently been modified

A

in winter, temps regularly fall below freezing point at night and rise above it in the day, resulting in freeze thaw cycles which have created blockfields on mountain summits and ridges

scree is also actively forming from the frost shattering of boulders on the steep valley slopes. this has given rise to the increasing parabolic shape of the nant ffrancon valley as mass movement processes lead to accumulated debris at the base of slopes

waterfalls from hanging valleys have actively eroded back into the sides of the gacial trough, creating small gorges

217
Q

example of drumlins in nant ffrancon

A

there are several drumlins within the Cowny valley, towards Llandudno, which were deposited under a large glacier flowing north from the mountains of snowdonia

they are typically 50-70m high and characteristically elongated in shape

218
Q

what is the impact of the Grand Dixence dam on river channels?

A

the trapping of sediment behind the dam leads to very clear water being returned into the natural river channels below the power stations. this has excess energy as none is being used to transport sediment and results in increased channel erosion

the lack of discharge in the below-dam rivers mean that some virtually dry up in the summer.

the amount of sediment eventually flowing into Lake Geneva has halved since the construction of the dam

219
Q

what is the impact of the Grand Dixence dam on Val d’Herens?

A

there is a risk of sudden and unexpected flooding when excess stored water has to be releaed

this has hindered both tourist use and development along the valley floor, although the local residents receive significant revenues from it andd so are still strongly in favour of the scheme

220
Q

what happened in december 2000 near the Grande Dixence dam?

A

in December 2000, production was put on hold at the dam after a high-pressure pipeline burst, causing a landslide that wiped out a small hamlet and killed three people

221
Q

what is the future for the Grand Dixence?

A

climate change is producing higher rates of glacier melting in the Swiss Alps, and the meltwater available to create hydropower is increasing

however, eventually the glaciers will have shrunk so much that meltwater supply is likely to dimish, altering the sediment supply and transportation even further

222
Q
A

ocr geography a-level (7 decks)

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