exploring oceans

Question 1

what is an ocean?

Answer 1

a body of saline water that composes much of a planets hydrosphere

Question 2

how much of the earth’s surface do oceans take up?

Answer 2

71%

Question 3

what is an ocean basin?

Answer 3

a depression of the Earth’s surface in which an ocean lies

Question 4

what are seas?

Answer 4

seas are smaller than oceans and are located where land and oceans meet

Question 5

rank the oceans from largest to smallest?

Answer 5

pacific, atlantic, indian, southern, arctic

Question 6

what is the continental shelf?

Answer 6

the gently sloping offshore extension of a continent extending into the ocean as far as the continental slope

average 70km long, slope angle 2m/km

Question 7

what is the continental slope?

Answer 7

where the continental shelf becomes steeper as it descends to the deep ocean

average 16km long, slope angle 70m/km

Question 8

what is the abyssal plain?

Answer 8

the deepest part of the ocean covering vast areas of ocean floor. Submarine mountain chains and trenches interrupt the relatively flat plain

deep (2000m+) and vast with many features

Question 9

what is an ocean trench?

Answer 9

formed when one tectonic plate subducts beneath another as they collide.

the oldest (therefore densest) plate will subduct

the subduction zone becomes one of the deepest parts of the ocean

Question 10

what is a guyot?

Answer 10

a peak that once rose above the surface of the ocean. Erosion then reduced their height below sea level, leaving the peak with a flat top

Question 11

what is a sea mount?

Answer 11

any form of underwater mountain

it is a volcanic peak rising steeply from the ocean floor.

Some are isolated while others occur in chains extending from a mid-ocean ridge or hot spot

Question 12

what is the salinity of freshwater compared to seawater average?

Answer 12

freshwater = >0.5ppt

seawater average = 35ppt

Question 13

what parts of the world have higher salinity and why?

Answer 13

Atlantic and Mediterranean bc they are more landlocked and ocean currents circulate the water less

Question 14

which parts of the world have lower salinity?

Answer 14

the polar regions bc freshwater from ice dilutes salt water. salt water also sinks and move away

Question 15

why does the Mediterranean Sea have a particularly high salinity?

Answer 15

not much of an ocean current to circulate and dilute the water

landlocked

hot so more evaporation

Question 16

why is the sea salty?

Answer 16

because of black smokers underwater

Question 17

what is thermocline?

Answer 17

the depth in the ocean where there is a rapid change in water temperature

cold water is dense, and dense water sinks

water temp decreases rapidly as depth increases close to the surface. this is known as the thermocline. the depth of the warm surface layer varies both with season and location. Generally, below about 1km, water temperature hardly changes with increasing depth

Question 18

what is the halocline?

Answer 18

the depth in the ocean where there is a rapid change in the salinity of seawater

high salinity makes water denser, dense water sinks

Question 19

how does the ocean vary vertically?

Answer 19

differences in density affect water movements, such as the flow of ocean currents that move heat from the tropics to the poles and affect global climate

density changes in different layers of water affect how, when and where water moves vertically in oceans

Question 20

what is the (eu)photic zone?

Answer 20

sunlight rarely goes beyond this area

all marine organisms that photosynthesise are limited to the photic zone. this includes phytoplankton

90% of marine organisms, live in, or are frequent visitors to the photic zone

Question 21

what is the dysphotic zone?

Answer 21

sunlight decreases rapidly with depth

photosynthesis not possible here

Question 22

what is the aphotic zone?

Answer 22

sunlight does not penetrate at all

makes up the majority of the ocean

has a relatively small amount of life both in diversity of species and in numbers

Question 23

what is bioluminesence?

Answer 23

the ability of some organisms to generate light from their bodies

at a depth where light reaches some organisms use bioluminescence to create their own light to lure prey/ evade predators

Question 24

what are some examples of nutrients needed by organisms?

Answer 24

nitrogen, iron and zinc

Question 25

how do nutrients enter the ocean?

Answer 25

dissolved nutrients from weathered rocks are transported by rivers into the oceans and from dust carried by winds

plankton incorporate nutrients into their tissues,and those are then passed through ecosystems as consumer organisms feed on plankton and each other

Question 26

where are nutrient levels low?

Answer 26

nutrient levels are relatively low at the surface, especially away from continents where rivers flow into the ocean to bring dissolved minerals

warm waters in equatorial regions are also low in nutrients

Question 27

how is the Sun’s energy transferred down from the surface?

Answer 27

by marine snow falling

this is made up of small particles, the remains of organisms living near the surface

Question 28

what is a hydrothermal vent?

Answer 28

very hot water springs, rich in dissolved minerals, flowing from the ocean floor at mid-ocean ranges or hot spots

these are rich in silica, manganese, hydrogen, sulphur and methane. Specialised bacteria fix the energy from these erupting smokers and communities develop unlike any other on Earth

organisms such as tube worms, shrimp and small crabs obtain their energy from the chemical energy in hot water

Question 29

changes in nutrient levels

Answer 29

• a variety of nutrients are needed by all organisms]
• dissolved nutrients from weathered rocks are transported to sea via rivers and wind
• phytoplankton incorporate these nutrients and they are passed thru food chain
• nutrients are returned to water through waste products and when they die
• nutrient levels are lower at the surface (away from continents) as they are quickly used or sink
• once they sink they are unable to return to the surface due to density (thermocline) unless there is an upwelling
• upwelling occurs in Southern OCean and around Antarctica at certain times of the year

Question 30

what is the ocean ridge?

Answer 30

the point at which the plates separate and a new crust is formed

Question 31

what is the ocean rift?

Answer 31

hills and valleys that form around the ridge

Question 32

what is sea floor spreading?

Answer 32

the formation of fresh areas of oceanic crust which occurs through the upwelling of magma at mid-ocean ridges and its subsequent outward movement on either side.

Question 33

what are the two types of ocean current?

Answer 33

• movement of surface water (approx top 400m)
• movement of deeper water (around 90%)

Question 34

what are ocean currents a result of?

Answer 34

solar heating, effects of wind, gravity and the Coriolis force

Question 35

what are surface currents?

(how they are formed)

Answer 35

• solar heating causes water to expand, creating a slight slope away from the equator which water will run down
• prevailing winds will push the water to flow in that direction. Will pile up water in direction of wind and gravity, encouraging water to move downslope
• coriolis force causes water movement to be deflected by the spin of the earth, creating larger currents known as gyres

Question 36

why is the climate in Western Europe warmer than other areas at similar latitudes?

Answer 36

the Gulf Stream carries warm water northward from the tropics

Question 37

what is the thermohaline circulation?

Answer 37

currents that run deep into the oceans

Question 38

what is Net Primary Productivity? (NPP)

Answer 38

a measure of how much of the Sun’s energy is captured

usually measured as grams of carbon per unit area per year

Question 39

what is the total NPP?

Answer 39

100 billion tonnes of carbon

just under half of this occurs in the ocean, a key part of the carbon cycle

Question 40

where is the highest NPP found?

Answer 40

where the supply of dissolved nutrients is highest, around coasts

kelp forests can have NPP approaching what is found in tropical rainforests, and seagrass meadows and floating seaweeds play important roles

Question 41

where are areas of low NPP?

Answer 41

large areas of the ocean away from continents have low nutrient levels and low NPP

Question 42

what is the intertidal zone?

Answer 42

the area that is above water at low tide and underwater at high tide

the area can be a narrow strip, as in Pacific Islands that only have a narrow tidal range, or can include many metres of shoreline where shallow beach slopes interact with high tidal excursion

Question 43

what are typical inhabitants of the intertidal zone?

Answer 43

urchins, sea anemones, barnacles, chitons, crabs, isopods, mussels, starfish etc

Question 44

an example of an intertidal food chain?

Answer 44

sea weed - phytoplankton - mussels - crab

Question 45

what are two extreme environments in the deep sea where life is more abundant?

Answer 45

cold seeps and hydrothermal vents

food chains here do not begin with plants or algae that make food from sunlight

Question 46

what are cold seeps?

Answer 46

where methane and hydrogen sulfide are released into the ocean

Question 47

what organisms reside in cold seeps?

Answer 47

home to clams, mussels, shrimp, crabs, bacteria and tubeworms

for food, these animals depend on certain types of single-shell Archaea and Eubacteria microbes that live off the methane and hydrogen sulfide from the seep

Question 48

what organisms reside near hydrothermal vents?

Answer 48

certain types of Archaea and Eubacteria microbes are able to turn the chemicals from the hot water into the energy they need to survive

many other types of living fish eg fish, shrimp, giant tube worms and crabs thrive in this environment

some, like mussels and clams, get the nutrition they need from microbes living in their bodies. others, like shrimp, eat the Archaea and Eubacteria

Question 49

example of a deep water food chain?

Answer 49

tube worms - mat forming Bacteria - Zoarcid Fish - Octopus

Question 50

compare inter-tidal and deep water ecosystems

Answer 50

intertidal has more light, deep water is always dark because sunlight cannot get down that far

intertidal zone is close to the coast so has lots of nutrients. deep water has lower nutrient levels

Question 51

why is there more oxygen able to dissolve into the ocean near Antarctica?

Answer 51

surrounded by the Antarctic circumpolar surface current. the cold water allows more oxygen to dissolve in the ocean, which is an advantage for marine life

Question 52

when is phytoplankton activity highest in Antarctica?

Answer 52

during the summer (Nov-Mar), when there are fewer than 12 hours of sunlight and more than 20 hours for several weeks, therefore the surface waters in the ocean around Antarctica are rich in nutrients?

Question 53

what process is the entire ecosystem in the ocean around Antarctica built upon?

Answer 53

as sea ice forms at the start of winter, some salt is expelled from the ice in the surrounding water

the more saline water becomes, the more dense the surrounding water

the surface water is cooled to below 0 degrees C, bc saline water has a lower freezing point than freshwater

very cold saline water at the surface sinks

less salty and therefore less dense deep water upwells, carrying nutrients such as nitrogen and silica

phytoplankton use these nutrients to grow

the entire ecosystem builds on this process

Question 54

what are marine food webs and chains like in the oceans around Antarctica?

Answer 54

relatively simple, and biodiversity is comparatively low

eg one food chain starts with phytoplankton. krill feed on these and are in turn eaten by baleen whales

Question 55

what are the pros of whaling?

Answer 55

whales provide meat, blubber and skins, all of which can be used

Question 56

what is whale blubber mainly used for nowadays?

Answer 56

today, meat is the primary product of sale

blubber had been rendered down mostly to cheap industrial products such as animal feed or, in Iceland, as a fuel supplement for whaling ships

Question 57

what are the cons of whaling?

Answer 57

• the Inuits have hunted and used whales for centuries, but with increased numbers of people on the planet + growing demand for resources, whales have become a threatened resource
• killing animals poses ethical issues
• disturbs ecosystems and food chains

Question 58

what is the IWC?

Answer 58

International Whaling Commission

was set up under the ICRW to decide hunting quotas and other relevant matters based on the findings of its Scientific Committee

Non-member countries are not bound by its regulations and conduct their own management programs

Question 59

what countries have urged the IWC to lift the ban?

Answer 59

Japan, Norway and Iceland

Question 60

what was the compromise plan offered by a coalition of anti-whaling nations?

Answer 60

would allow these countries to continue whaling, but with smaller catches and under close supervision

would also completely ban whaling in the Southern Ocean

Question 61

who is opposing the compromise plan?

Answer 61

more than 200 scientists and experts have opposed the compromise proposal for lifting the ban, and have also opposed allowing whaling in the Southern Ocean, which was declared a whale sanctuary in 1994

opponents want to see an end to all commercial whaling, but are willing to allow substinence level catches by indigenous peoples

Question 62

what were the events that led to Iceland leaving the IWC in 1992?

Answer 62

iceland did not object to the 1986 IWC moratorium

between 1986 and 1989, around 60 animals per year were taken under a scientific permit. however, under strong pressure from anti whaling countries, who viewed scientific whaling as a circumvention of the moratorium, Iceland ceased whaling in 1989

following the IWC’s 1991 refusal to accept its Scientific Committee’s recommendation to allow sustainable commercial whaling, Iceland left the IWC in 1992

Question 63

what was iceland’s quota for the 2012 commercial whaling season?

Answer 63

216 minke whales

Question 64

how is the IWC effective?

Answer 64

strict quotas which reduces the impacts of whaling

Question 65

how is the IWC ineffective?

Answer 65

not all countries are a part of the IWC and conduct their own programmes, which could counteract the IWC’s.

Countries can just leave and do what they want, as demonstrated by Iceland

Question 66

who are the different stakeholders interested in whaling in Iceland?

Answer 66

IWC

whalers

tourists

locals/the government

Question 67

what are stakeholders?

Answer 67

people or groups that have a vested interest in the activities or events in a local area

Question 68

how are catch limits decided by the IWC?

Answer 68

the Commission received advice on sustainability from its Scientific Committee and this assists it in deciding catch limits, which are then set out in a document called the Schedule to the International Convention for the Regulation of Whaling (1946)

Question 69

what is the commercial whaling moratorium?

Answer 69

in 1982 the IWC decided that there should be a pause in commercial whaling on all whale species and populations (known as ‘whale stocks’) from the 1985/1986 season onwards

was implemented as whale hunting was having a significant impact on population numbers and the number of whales were becoming no longer resilient.

the moratorium remains in place today

Question 70

what are the views of the Icelandic Government on whaling?

Answer 70

claims it was forced to proceed with its rebel whaling program after years of deadlock at the IWC

Foreign Minister is obligated to defend Iceland’s whaling, but has a personal opinion that there is no economic importance of catching 40 minke whales (the quota for that year), and that in doing so it actually harms the tourism industry.

Question 71

what are the views of the IWC on whaling?

Answer 71

scientists have approved concept of sustainable whaling, but majority of the IWC members disapprove

Question 72

what are the weaknesses to the government’s view on whaling?

Answer 72

has an impact on tourism

some say whaling is damaging Iceland’s chances of joining the UN Security Council

Question 73

what are the whalers’ views on whaling, and what are the strengths and weaknesses of this?

Answer 73

think it is good food and a good source of money

S = lots of money

W = they are the reason the whales are dying so much because they commercialise whaling

Question 74

how is whaling and Iceland’s tourist industry linked?

Answer 74

whale watching brings in 100,000 tourists per year, and people are emotionally attached to the whales

some eat minke whale kebabs

Question 75

what is commercial whaling like today?

Answer 75

Norway and Iceland take whales commercially at present, either under objection to the moratorium decision, or under reservation to it.

Establish their own catch limits but must provide information on their catches and associated scientific data to the Commission.

Russia also registered an objection to the moratorium decision but does not exercise it.

Norway takes North Atlantic common minke whales within its EEZ

Iceland takes North Atlantic common minke whales and North Atlantic fin whales within its EEZ

Question 76

where is the Beaufort Sea?

Answer 76

is the portion of the Arctic Ocean located north of the Northwest Territories.the Yukon, and Alaska, and the west of Canada’s Arctic islands

Question 77

what is the dispute over the Beaufort Sea about?

Answer 77

there is an ongoing dispute between Canada and USA over the delimitation of part of the maritime section of the International Boundary in the Beaufort Sea.

Difference in claims to the maritime boundary creates a wedge that is claimed by both nations.

This dispute has taken increased significance due to the possible presence of petroleum reserves within the wedge. Both nations have put petroleum exploration rights up for bid on sections within this disputed wedge/

Question 78

what is Canada’s claim with the Beaufort Sea?

Answer 78

claims the maritime boundary to be along the 141st meridian wet, out to a distance of 200 nautical miles, following the Alaska-Yukan land border

Question 79

what is the USA’s claim with the Beaufort sea?

Answer 79

claims the boundary line to be perpendicular to the coast out to a distance of 200 nmi, following a line of equidistance from the coast.

Question 80

what is a strength of Canada’s claim?

Answer 80

S = they don’t have as many reserves and so need more

Question 81

what are the strengths and weaknesses of USA’s claim?

Answer 81

S = they have a greater population and so need it more

W = already have lots of oil

Question 82

how can we obtain tidal energy?

Answer 82

using a barrage, by constructing a dam-like structure across part of the coast, usually an estuary.

Gates in the barrage open as the tide rises. At high tide, the gates close, creating a tidal lagoon. As the tide falls, this stored water is then released through the barrage’s turbines and back out to sea, generating electricity.

Question 83

what was the Swansea Bay Tidal Lagoon?

Answer 83

a 320 MW tidal power station was planned for Swansea Bay in south Wales.

Would be enough to power about 155,000 homes.

Estimated cost was put at £1 billion (2015 prices)

Question 84

how much electricity would it generate, estimated working life, tourism

what were the advantages that developers proposed about the Swansea Bay scheme?

Answer 84

• a renewable flow energy source
• it would generate electricity for 16 hours in every 24 hours
• low CO2 emissions - the construction and materials used produced CO2 but it was estimated that the first 4 years of full operation would save the equivalent quantity of CO2
• lifetime carbon footprint would be very small
• estimated working life of 120 years
• would create recreation and tourism opportunities, eg a cycle path across the breakwater, recreational fishing, sailing etc

Question 85

what were some of the concerns about the impacts of the Swansea Tidal Lagoon?

Answer 85

• sediment movements within Swansea Bay
• water quality due to more limited flows within the bay
• the marine ecosystem - physical disturbance of habitats, noise and vibration, the movement of marine creatures and larger marine organisms passing through turbines
• local inshore fisheries
• the environment in Cornwall (a conservation zone) where the stone for the breakwater would be quarried.

Question 86

when was the Swansea Bay project scrapped?

Answer 86

2018

Question 87

what is an example of a wave technology system that is submerged?

Answer 87

The Waveroller

this Finnish technology consists of a series of large flaps sticking up vertically from the seabed in relatively shallow water

as waves pass, the flap moves back and forth developing pressure in a hydraulic system which in turn powers an electricity generator

Question 88

how do wave technology systems that are installed on the surface generate energy?

Answer 88

wave energy is used to compress air or fluids to drive a generator

Question 89

what are the challenges to making wave or tidal energy competitive?

Answer 89

• the very high initial capital costs- there are no economies of scale in manufacturing costs of bespoke equipment
• waves are unpredictable and highly variable, so there are very many prototype designs but as of 2020, no dominant system
• large systems are bound to be environmentally disruptive and potentially dangerous to both wildlife and human activities
• they cannot provide base level electricity: waves are highly unpredictable, so calm days mean no electricity
• the marine environment is hostile: sea-water corrosion and bio-fouling by marine organisms are likely to make maintenance costs very high

Question 90

what is the difference between ferrous and non-ferrous metals?

Answer 90

ferrous contain iron and therefore are magnetic eg iron, nickel and cobalt

non-ferrous minerals do not contain iron and so are not magnetic eg gold, copper, aluminum

Question 91

what are manganese nodules?

Answer 91

spherical or elliptical clumps of metal-oxide mineral with a diameter of between 2-15 centimetres

they include iver 20 varieties of valuable metals and rare earths including manganese, nickel, copper, and cobalt

distributed like a bed of stones on the seabed surface at a depth of 4,000 to 6,000 metres

Question 92

what is cobalt-rich crust?

Answer 92

a black, asphalt-like substance that covers ocean rock from several millimetres to 10cm in thickness

found halfway up the slopes of undersea mountains at a depth of between 1,000 and 2,500 meters

its major constituents are manganese and iron and it is also rich in cobalt, but there is also crust with high nickel and platinum

first discovered in an ocean area southwest of Hawaii in 1981 and has been commonly found in Japanese coastal waters

Question 93

what are hydrothermal deposits?

Answer 93

sulfide deposits of polymetal that are clumped together and composed of metallic components deposited from hot water that spouts from the seabed surface

have been discovered in the ocean areas with vigorous volcanic activity at a depth of several hundred metres to approx. 3,000m.

deposits often include copper, lead, zinc, cold, and silver

some deposits include rare metals such as germanium and gallium

Question 94

what factors have given a boost to sea floor mining?

Answer 94

the growth in the use of Rare Earth Elements (REEs) in electric technology eg smartphones

• REEs have a strategic importance, eg in telecommunications and military hardware such as missiles
• currently, production of REEs is dominated by China. The reliance on one source for the supply of these vital commodities is a significant concern for the USA, Japan and the EU. This is likely to influence decisions about granting permission for ocean mining to proceed within the EEZs of some countries

Question 95

how can we deep sea mine?

Answer 95

deep sea remotely operated vehicles (ROVs) are being used to survey and sample the seabed

most mining companies extract minerals by choosing a hydraulic suction system

Question 96

what are the concerns about sea bed mining?

Answer 96

it is difficult to assess potential damage from mining due to the absence of knowledge about the environment and ecosystems in the ocean deeps

so little of the dee[ ocean has been systematically researched that mining could severely damage these sensitive locations before they have been fully investigated

Question 97

discuss the ‘tragedy of the commons’

Answer 97

1968, Garrett Hardin published article entitled ‘The Tragedy of the Commons’.

Argued that tension exists between the common good and self-interest. this is particularly so when a resource belongs to all as part of the global commons

argued that people tend to exploit the resource without considering their impact on it. the advantage to the individual is greater than its cost because the cost is shared among very many

Question 98

what is the UNCLOS?

Answer 98

The United Nations Convention on the Law of the Sea is an international agreement that attempts to define the rights and responsibilities with regard to the coastal zone and beyond

most but not all countries have signed the convention

the USA is the most obvious non-signatory.

Landlocked countries are given free right of access to and from the sea under UNCLOS rules

Question 99

what are the territorial waters?

Answer 99

0-3 nmi from coast

country has complete control over all activities

Question 100

what is the contiguous zone?

Answer 100

3-12 nmi from coast

country has sovereignty and legal rights, eg customs and rules governing waste disposal but unimpeded access given to vessels from any country

Question 101

what is the EEZ?

Answer 101

Exclusive Economic Zone

200nmi out

country has rights to control sea bed and water resources, but sharing allowed in some situations

all countries have rights to sail or fly over this area

Question 102

what are the High Seas?

Answer 102

outside the sovereignty and legal rights of a single country

certain international agreements apply

Question 103

include rockall

why is the system of coastal zones difficult to implement?

Answer 103

exact boundaries are often disputed as countries try to maximise their rights, especially if there is the prospect of access to resources

eg the UK claims the tiny island of Rockall, some 460km west of the Outer Hebrides. Part of the UK’s EEZ gives legal access to the seabed around it.

Countries can extend their EEZ if they show that the continental shelf extends beyond the 200 nmi limit. This can lead to significant overlaps and international disputes, notably in the Arctic and the South China Sea

Question 104

what are some management issues that have emerged since the UNCLOS came into force in 1994?

Answer 104

• ocean acidification
• the patenting of genetic resources through bioprospecting
• fishing in the deep oceans
• the lack of any agreement for the establishment of marine reserves in the high seas
• the absence of regulation of underwater noise and its potential impacts on marine life

Question 105

what is the International Seabed Authority?

Answer 105

created by the UN as part of the UNCLOS

is intended to oversee the exploitation of sea bed resources in the oceans. however, hydrothermal vents, their minerals and unique ecosystems had not been discovered when the UNCLOS was negotiated and so are not included

Question 106

what are marine reserves?

Answer 106

intended to protect marine habitats and ecosystems

in 2010, members of the International Convention on Biological Diversity committed to establishing 10% of the oceans as Marine Protected Areas (MPAs) by 2020.

currently, only around 3% of the world’s oceans are designated as marine reserves

Question 107

what is a persistent problem of international management?

Answer 107

the lack of any means of enforcement

Governments can sign treaties and make promises, but punishing those that break treaties is beyond the remit of the UN. Superpowers such as the USA and China are able to ignore regulations

Question 108

what is the Chagos Marine Reserve?

Answer 108

in 2010, the UK designated more than 640,000km2 of the Chagos Archipelago in the Indian Ocean to be a complete ‘no take’ (no fishing) MPA.

Within the reserve are tropical islands, coral reefs, ocean trenches, abyssal plains and seamounts.

All extractive activities such as industrial scale fishing and ocean bed mining are prohibited

Question 109

what was the controversy around the Chagos Marine Reserve?

Answer 109

sovereignty over the Chagos Archipelago is disputed between Mauritius, a former colony of the UK, and the UK.

Mauritius has repeatedly argued that the archipelago is part of its territory and that the UK claim is a violation of UN resolutions banning the breaking up of colonial territories before independence

in 2015, the Permanent Court of Arbitration in the Hague unanimously held that the MPA which the UK created was in violation of international law.`

Question 110

where is CO2 in the oceans and how did it get there?

Answer 110

dissolved in ocean water

bc ships burn fossil fuels

Question 111

where are plastics in the oceans and how did they get there?

Answer 111

found in every ocean and along the vast majority of coastlines, especially in gyres

bc of accidental discard when ships are caught in storms, from rivers and beaches, and dumping off sides of ships at seas

Question 112

where are heavy metals found in the oceans and how did they get there?

Answer 112

fishing grounds off of Minamata, Japan, remain dangerously contaminated with mercury. release of industrial wastewater ceased in late 1960s

tend to be found in coastal zones

bc they are dumped by industry/shipping. in LIDCs, heavy metals eg mercury pollute waterways, lakes + inshore waters

Question 113

where is nuclear waste found in the oceans and how did it get there?

Answer 113

dumped at bottom of ocean

accidents

radioactive material leaked from Fukushima nuclear power plant in 2011

13 countries disposed of radioactive liquids and solids into the oceans

Question 114

where can oil be found in the oceans and how did it get there?

Answer 114

on the surface bc of oil spills

Question 115

where are nitrates and phosphates found in the oceans and how did they get there?

Answer 115

dissolved in coastal waters bc of agricultural runoff n fertilisers

Question 116

how much sulphur do the largest vessels emit per year?

Answer 116

5000 tonnes

Question 117

how much of emissions is overall sea transport responsible for?

Answer 117

9% of annual SO2 emissions

15-30% of NO2 pollution

Question 118

how can shipping lines reduce emissions?

Answer 118

increased fuel efficient engines

using fuel lower in sulphur content

Question 119

what happened to the Russian K-27?

Answer 119

sunk in 1981 and is lying on the floor of the Kara Sea in 33m of water with its nuclear reactor

in time, the submarine’s structure will weaken and eventually release high level radioactive material into the sea

Question 120

what is pollution to the ocean from domestic and industrial sources like?

Answer 120

today, few ACs routinely discharge untreated effluent into seas and rivers, unlike before

progress is being made in EDCs, but environmental improvements are not top priority

in most LIDCs, suspended solids, organic waste, heavy metals, nitrates phosphates pesticides, fungicides and growth from hormones from agriculture pollute waterways, lakes and inshore waters

Question 121

when,how many died, why,how long,howmuch

what was the Deepwater Horizon Disaster?

Answer 121

in april 2010, a BP oil rig located 40 miles off the Louisiana coast and in 1500m water depth exploded, killing 11 workers and injuring 17.

this followed the failure of the ‘blow-out’ device designed to prevent high-pressure oil and gas from blasting up the drill pipe

for 87 days, oil gushed out of the well-head on the seabed.

upper estimates put the volume of oil at roughly 4.9 million barrels. was the largest oil spill in history

at its maximum, 180,000 km2 of the Gulf was affected and just over 1600km of shoreline was polluted

Question 122

define pollution

Answer 122

the process by which human activity contaminates the environment, with adverse effects on the quality of air, water etc + the health of ppl and other organisms

Question 123

define point source pollution

Answer 123

release of pollutants from a single clearly identified source, eg a sewage pipe

Question 124

define diffuse/ non-point source pollution

Answer 124

when pollution comes from many different sources which are hard to pinpoint

eg through surface runoff from fields carrying pesticides or from urban areas containing petroleum and emerging contaminants (eg pharmaceuticals)

Question 125

what is eutrophication?

Answer 125

the enrichment of a water body usually with an excess amount of nutrients, such as nitrate + phosphate.

can promote algal blooms

Question 126

include stuff abt jamaica

what are algal blooms?

Answer 126

pollutants such as nitrates and phosphates in lakes and seas create a rich ‘soup’ of nutrients which stimulate blooms of algae.

this can lead to the reduction in the level of dissolved oxygen in the water and the consequent death of fish.

the development of golf courses in coastal resorts in Jamaica involves management strategies that use fertilizers and pesticides to maintain the greens and fairways. The nitrates used in fertilizers inevitably run-off into the sea where they help feed the algae that, in turn, reduces sunlight and thus photosynthesis of coral

Question 127

how did they stop the oil in the Deepwater Horizon disaster?

Answer 127

attempts to close the blow-out valves were unsuccessful as too much damage had taken place to the mechanisms

a large containment box was lowered to cover the well-head but this failed to stop the oil

then a strategy known as ‘top kill’ was tried. this is when materials such as heavy and dense mud and concrete are poured into the well to seal it. It took several weeks to force sufficient material into the well to plug it

Question 128

what strategies were used in attempt to deal with the escaped oil?

Answer 128

skimming surface oil – booms towed by small manoeuvrable boats collect oil; the oil is then scooped up and taken away

burning surface oil – surface oil is collected in a fire-proof boom; the oil is then burned

dispersants – chemicals break the oil into smaller particles to prevent oil slicks forming; these were sprayed from the air and by boats; 1.84 million gallons of dispersants were used; evaporation and biological degradation by oil-consuming bacteria then removes the oil

artificial barrier islands were constructed just off-shore in some places; these were to act as physical barriers to stop the oil reaching the shore; they tended, however, to be soon washed away by the waves and currents in the Gulf

beach cleaning – oil washed up on beaches mixed with sand; the contaminated sand was then scooped up mechanically or shovelled by hand into piles for collection

beach cleaning– sand mixed with oil was collected and ‘washed’ by equipment using very hot water, the sand could then be returned to the beach while the separated oil was taken away for processing

Question 129

includewhat the noaa did, and how much less crabs crabbers are trapping

how was the fishing industry impacted by the Deepwater Horizon Disaster?

Answer 129

the fishing industry along the US Gulf coast is one of the most productive in the world (shrimp oysters and fish) and important for the regional economy and employment.

in the short term, fishing stopped and there was a loss of income for those involved in the industry

on 2 May 2010, NOAA closed commercial and recreational fishing in affected federal waters between the mouth of the Mississippi River and Pensacola Bay. This expanded to encompass approx. 36% of Federal waters in the Gulf of Mexico. Initial cost estimates to the fishing industry were $2.5 billion. There was a 20-30% loss in seafood grounds

in late 2012, local fishermen report that crab, shrimp and oyster fishing operations have not yet recovered. Since the spill, crabbers are trapping 75% fewer crabs

Question 130

impact of the deepwater horizon on the marine ecosystem?

Answer 130

mortality among birds, fish and mammals such as dolphins were high. More than 400 species that live in the Gulf Islands and marshlands are at risk

in the national refuges most at risk, about 34,000 birds were counted

the spill threatened 39 marine species in addition to the 14 currently under federal protection

Question 131

impacts of the deepwater horizion incident on tourism?

Answer 131

although many people cancelled their vacations due to the spill, hotels close to the coasts of Louisiana, Mississippi and Alabama reported dramatic increases in business during the first 1/2 of May 2010, probably due to influx of people who had come to work with oil removal efforts

the US Travel Association estimated that the economic impact of the oil spill on tourism across the Gulf Coast over a 3 year period could exceed approx $23 billion

Question 132

why is analysis of the Deepwater Horizion incident difficult?

Answer 132

because BP is such a big TNC that they could interfere and pull at strings to make things seem different, affecting validity

could be hard to quantify pros and cons of management then to weigh up which is the better/worse scenario

don’t know what the environment etc was like before the spill

Question 133

what is a gyre?

Answer 133

any large system of rotating ocean currents, particularly those involved with large movements

Question 134

how big is the Great Pacific Garbage Patch estimated to be?

Answer 134

anywehre from 3,100 square miles to twice the size of Texas

Question 135

how are gyres created?

Answer 135

when the jet stream goes one way and the trade winds go the opposite way, creating a huge gently swirling circle

on the outside of the circle, the currents move around, but the inside remains calm, making it the perfect place for debris to accumulate

Question 136

(as in what sources not what country)

where does the garbage in the North Pacific gyre come from?

Answer 136

an estimated 80% of the garbage comes from land-based sources and 20% from ships

Question 137

what are garbage patches made of?

Answer 137

millions of small and microscopic pieces of plastic

Question 138

impact of the great pacific garbage patch?

Answer 138

the plastic pellets are small enough that birds and fish mistake them for food. the plastic stays in birds’ stomachs, keeping them from eating anything with nutritional value and causing them to slowly starve to death

in Midway Atoll, of the 1.5 million Laysan albatrosses that inhabit Midway, nearly all are found to have plastic in their digestive system

the plastic has created a surface for small creatures like water insects, barnacles, small crustaceans and invertebrates called bryozoans. These creatures would normally not make it to the middle of the ocean, so their presence will change the ocean’s ecosystem. Barnacles and bryozoans have caused considerable damage to other ecosystems they’ve invaded

Question 139

management of the Great Pacific Garbage Patch?

Answer 139

using fewer plastic products would help, especially getting rid of plastic bags and plastic can holders, as would more recycling of what we already use

there are also scientists who are working to make plastic products from renewable products eg cellulose and vegetable oil. Even so, reducing the amount of new plastic dumped in the ocean won’t get rid of what is already there

Question 140

solutions to the great pacific garbage patch?

Answer 140

stop using disposable plastics

create educational campaigns

subsidise the transition to biodegradable products at a national level. One estimate showed that it would take 67 clean up ships a full year to make a 1% reduction in the Garbage Patch. What we can do is subsidise the transition to better plastics at a local, regional and national scale to reduce waste

create new collection platforms that will filter plastics from the water. At a 2012 TEDx presentation, Boyan Slat offered a conceptualised solution that would use collection arms and platforms to filter out the plastics from the water without interfering with micro-life in the sea. It would work by allowing the debris to drift into the collection platforms on its own, making the work efficient due to the use of floating booms. According to Slat’s calculations, this could clean up every garbage patch in the world’s oceans in just five years

use the garbage patch to create new products by reusing and recycling what is already there

Question 141

what is the process of ocean acidification?

Answer 141

CO2 from atmosphere absorbed by ocean

CO2 reacts to sea water to from carbonic acid. Sea water PH is then lowered

due to the action of carbonic acid, much calcium bicarbonate formed. Carbonate concentrations are diluted, making it difficult for organisms to form shells made of calcium carbonate

Question 142

how much has the average global surface ocean pH fallen?

Answer 142

from a pre-industrial level of 8.2 to 8.1

a 30% increase in acidity

the forecast is for ocean pH to reach 7.8-7.9 by 2100, a doubling of acidity

Question 143

what are the impacts of ocean acidification on marine ecosystems?

Answer 143

molluscs and crustacea needing to build a shell or coral needing to build its mineral skeleton are less able to accumulate calcium carbonate. These members of the lower trophic levels are more susceptible to predation and are less likely to reach maturity and breed. if these organisms reduce in numbers, the higher trophic levels in marine ecosystems are put at risk

it is suggested that jellyfish will thrive in warmer and more acidic conditions. Their numbers can increase rapidly until they dominate and disturb the equilibrium of marine ecosystems

Question 144

impacts on people of depleting fish stocks due to ocean acidification?

Answer 144

changes in marine ecosystems could significantly alter marine harvests of shellfish, crustacea and fish which are examples of provisioning ecosystem services

research is also indicating that early stages of fish species (eggs, larvae) are vulnerable to increasingly acidic sea water

Question 145

what are corals?

Answer 145

marine polyps, a type of invertebrate.

each polyp is a sac-like animal typically only a few millimetres in diameter and a few centimetres in length

most live in symbiosis with algae known as zooxanthellae. these algae release nutrients via photosynthesis, which the polyps feed on. In return, the algae are sheltered within the hard coral skeleton and obtain some minerals from the coral. the algae contain pigments which give coral its colours

Question 146

what are the environmental conditions needed for coral to grow well?

Answer 146

mean annual water temp not less than 18C, ideally around 26C

salinity levels greater than 30-32ppt

water depth of 25m or less.

clear water (sediment reduces the light available for photosynthesis. it can also cover the coral and clog up the feeding tubes)

the water needs to be well oxygenated so some wave action is needed, but not so much that it might physically damage the coral

Question 147

what is coral bleaching?

Answer 147

if the temperature exceeds their tolerance, the relationship between coral polyp and algae is disturbed. At its most extreme, many of the algae are expelled, depriving the coral of colour

in the late 1990s, coral reefs in most parts of the world were experiencing mass bleaching. In regions such as the Seychelles, the Maldives and parts of the eastern Pacific, coral mortality reached 80%. Some reefs have since recovered, although there may be less coral overall

Question 148

how biodiverse is The Great Barrier Reef?

Answer 148

home to approx 1500 fish species, 350 coral species, 4000 mollusc species, 500 algae species, 6 of the 7 turtle species in the world etc

Question 149

what are the threats to the biodiversity of coral reefs?

Answer 149

increased sea water temperatures lead to coral bleaching events

sea level rise increasing the depth of water over corals thereby reducing light levels

increased wave energy from greater number of more intense tropical storms

ocean acidification reduces coral’s ability to build carbonate structures

Question 150

how has the Great Barrier Reef been bleached?

Answer 150

in 2017, researchers found that 91% of the coral reef had been bleached at least once curing three bleaching events of the past 20 years, the most serious event occuring in 2016. another major bleaching event occured in 2017 after the report was published

Question 151

what are the threats to local communities from disruption to coral ecosystems (G.B.Reef)

Answer 151

coral reefs provide provisioning, regulating, cultural and supporting ecosystem services

they directly act as a buffer for coastlines from high energy waves. without them, losses of life, property and amenities such as beaches would be greater. the global economic value of shoreline protection from coral reefs as been estimated at about US$10 billion per year

loss of local supply of fresh protein from fish in coral reefs would be extremely detrimental to communities in LIDCs and some EDCs already suffering from widespread undernourishment

recreational fishing also generates significant employment and income for some communities which spreads through the area w/ multiplier effect. Other recreational activities such as scuba diving and snorkelling also attract visitors

Question 152

what are eustatic changes?

Answer 152

changes in absolute sea levels

Question 153

what are isostatic changes?

Answer 153

changes in the absolute level of the land.

they are localised and sometimes the result of tectonic movements such as earthquakes, and sometimes as land recovers from recently being covered by large and heavy ice sheets during the height of the Pleistocene.

Question 154

what is the Intergovernmental Panel on Climate Change (IPCC)?

Answer 154

a large international and interdisciplinary group of leading scientists. They research into the causes and effects of climate change to the environment and human societies

Question 155

what are the causes of recent sea level change?

Answer 155

thermal expansion of water. as its temp rises, the density of sea water increases, which brings about an increase in the volume of water in the ocean basins

the melting of glaciers and small ice caps

the melting of the Greenland and Antarctic ice sheets

Question 156

where is Tuvalu?

(and how many atolls)

Answer 156

a tiny island country located Oceania about halfway between the state of Hawaii and the nation of Australia

consists of five coral atolls and four reef islands, but none are more than 5 metres above sea level.

Question 157

what is Tuvalu’s economy like?

Answer 157

one of the smallest economies in the world

this is because the coral atolls on which its people are populated have extremely poor soils. its remote location means tourism and the related service industries are mainly non-existent

has a maritime EEZ of 500,000 square miles and so the country gains revenue from fees paid by other countries such as the US wanting to fish in the region

Question 158

geography and climate of tuvalu?

Answer 158

terrain consists of lowlying, narrow coral atolls and reefs.

lowest point is the Pacific Ocean at sea level and the highest is an unnamed location in the island of Niulakita at only 15 feet

climate is tropical. has a heavy rain season from November to March and although tropical storms are rare, the islands are prone to flooding with high tides and changes in sea level

Question 159

what are the threats to tuvalu?

Answer 159

climate change and rising sea levels have threated to flood much of the islands

spring tides particularly have steadily become higher, posing to flood greater areas. King tides have also grown over the last years. se water is now bubbling up through the porous coral landscape

water levels on the island are often ankle-deep. severe lowland flooding is regularly seen

is often threatened by hurricanes in the Pacific, causing storm surge and temporary rising seas

Question 160

impacts of rising sea levels on tuvalu’s crops?

Answer 160

salt water is flooding the shores and killing coconut palms. Many large parcels of land used for palm plantations are no longer of any value, greatly affecting the local subsistence economy

pulaka is the staple diet of the people. salt water has seeped into the island’s pulaka pits, making the pits unfit for further cultivation. in some places, 3/4 plants have died, leaving people reliant on imported foods

Question 161

impacts of sea water rise on tuvalu groundwater?

Answer 161

groundwater is beconing undrinkable due to sea-water intrusion

Question 162

how much of land has been claimed by the sea in tuvalu?

Answer 162

encroachment from the sea has claimed at least one percent of the 10 sqmi of land that make up the archipelago.

Question 163

what are the adaptations by governments and communities in tuvalu?

Answer 163

many refuse to believe that their islands will be totally lost and continue to live in tuvalu

new houses are all currently built on 10 foot tall stilts, something never before seen in the traditional architecture of the island groupings. Night clubs, restaurants and hotels are also being raised

young tuvaluans are being sent away to safer environments where they can get better educations and have more choices for the future.

entire families are relocating to countries such as New Zealand

they are raising money to build a new settlement on the Fijian Island of Kioa

Question 164

what is the IPCC concerned about?

(sea ice)

Answer 164

the effect of global warming on sea ice. this primarily concerns the Arctic, which is a frozen ocean

concern regarding the arctic sea ice focuses on two key aspects of the ice: area and thickness

between 1978 and 1996, the area of Arctic sea ice decreased by 2.9% per decade

in the 1960s, arctic sea ice was typically 4m thick at the centre of the Arctic ocean, but is now around 1.25m

a major concern is that a point will come when a threshold is crossed. after that, so much of the Arctic will be free of ice that increasing amounts of solar radiation will not be reflected, and so the Arctic Ocean will warm, melting more ice and creating an irreversible cycle

Question 165

implications of changes in Arctic Sea ice to indigenous peoples?

Answer 165

there are 4 million people living in the regions bordering the Arctic Ocean

peoples such as the Inuit and Chukchi continue to hunt and fish in the Arctic ocean. their sustainable harvests of animals such as walrus and seals are greatly affected by patterns of sea ice as well as the weather

may impact health if there is a reduction in food diversity and availability.

Question 166

geopolitical implications of changes in Arctic sea ice?

Answer 166

USA and Russia confront each other over the arctic. In addition, Canadian and European interests are prominent in the Arctic

tensions between competing powers have been increasing for some time. Claims over vast areas of the ocean have been lodged by RUssia, Canada and Denmark.

recently, russia ceremoniously planted its flag on the submarine mountain chain, the Lomonsov ridge. This attempt to claim rights now lies with the UNCLOS, which will adjudicate

currently, the militarisation of the Arctic is accelerating. All the nations bordering the Arctic Ocean have been investing in military infrastructure designed for Arctic operations

Question 167

implications of changes in Arctic sea ice regarding minerals?

Answer 167

as warming melts both sea ice and the tundra, exploration is revealing vast reserves

one estimate suggests as much as 90 billion barrels of oil and 47 billion m3 of natural gas are in the region

global TNCs in the energy and mining industries are taking seriously the prospect of recovering these vast reserves

Question 168

implications of changes in Arctic sea ice regarding transport routes?

Answer 168

until recently, the sea ice has made the arctic ocean impassable to shipping. explorers had long tried to find and sail through the North-West Passage (NWP) from the northwest atlantic to the pacific ocean

in 2014, the first cargo ship, unescorted by an ice-breaking vessel, sailed through the NWP.

interest in the Northern Sea ROute (NSR) along the siberian coast is also growing

shipping companies could reduce their costs significantly by using either of these routes, which significantly cut the distances between east Asia and their customers in Europe and NA.

taking the NSR rather than the trip through the SUez Canal reduces the trip from tokyo to rotterdam from 21,000km to 13,000km. however, some costs rise, such as the high fuel consumption of vessels sailing through sea ice.

most shipping is likely to transport resources out of the region. the russian Yamal liquid natural gas plant will be a shipping point for the next few years along the NSR

it will be serveral years before ships are regularly crossing the Arctic, but if sea ice continues to melt at its current rate, then by 2025, 200-300 ships are projected to operate in the Arctic Ocean

Question 169

how is the Arctic Ocean managed?

Answer 169

unlike the Antarctic, the Arctic does not have a comprehensive treaty protecting it from economic activities such as mineral and energy extraction

however, the Arctic Council, established in 1996, is acquiring a substantial role in governing the region. The original members are Canada, the USA, Russia, Norway, Denmark (greenland), Sweden, Finland and Iceland. The diversity of indigenous peoples is represented on the Council

the arctic council is a forum, and has no programming budget. all prjects or initiatives are sponsored by one or more Arctic States.

The Arctic Council regularly produces comprehensive, cutting edge environmental, ecological and social assessments through its Working Groups. However, it does not and cannot implement its guidelines, assessments or recommendations. That responsibility belongs to individual Arctic States of international borders

Question 170

what is globalisation?

Answer 170

the process of international integration arising from the interchange of world views, ideas and aspects of culture

Question 171

how has total world trade changed since the 1950s?

Answer 171

total world trade has more than trebled to 45% of global GDP since the 1950s

much of this trade is either inter- or intra- corporate, transporting parts to their final assembly locations and then onward to their markets

Question 172

what is the pattern of global shipping routes?

Answer 172

the principal shipping routes follow a relatively simple pattern

an east-west corridor links NA, Europe and Pacific Asia through the Suez Canal, the Straits of Malacca and the Panama Canal

a major route also extends from Europe to eastern South America and then various secondary routes, such as between Brazil and South Africa, add to the pattern

Question 173

what are factors influencing global shipping routes?

Answer 173

the vast majority of trade and therefore shipping takes place between the three hubs of the global economy: East Asia, Europe and North America

the relative absence of trade routes in the southern hemisphere is both a cause and an effect of the relative development status of the many LIDCs and EDCs in South America and Africa

Question 174

when did the suez canal and panama canal open?

Answer 174

suez canal = 1869

panama canal was completed and opened in 1914 under USA control

Question 175

what are the impacts of the Suez and Panama Canals?

Answer 175

these engineering projects are two of the most significant maritime shortcuts ever built and have had far reaching consequences for trade and geopolitics

the accidental blockage of the Suez Canal for a week in March 2021 is estimated to have cost the global economy about $10 billion.

about 12% of global trade passes through the suez canal

suez canal saves about 8900km, panama canal saves about 13000km (saves about 10 days and about 20 days respectively)

Question 176

what is the Kra Canal?

Answer 176

china has recently renewed the idea of helping to construct the Kra Canal through the Malay Peninsula, linking the Gulf of Thailand and the Andaman Sea.

it will provide a shorter route between the Indian Ocean and the Pacific Ocean (which is now served by the Straits of Malacca) by 1200km

presently about 15-20% of global trade and 30% of global crude oil shipments travel through the Straits of Malacca annually, but they are very narrow and difficult to navigate, creating something of a bottleneck. The World Bank predicts that the Straits of Malacca will reach its peak capacity in the next couple of years

Question 177

what is containerisation?

Answer 177

the shipping of goods in standard sized metal boxes

it allows efficient, mechanised handling of large volumes of goods and lowers transport costs

the elimination of loose cargo handling reduces costs at every stage of a journey from factory to final distribution centre

Question 178

what are economies of scale?

Answer 178

internal economies of scale are savings in unit costs that arise from large scale production, derived from within a plant

external economies of scale are savings made by a firm that arise from outside the firm itself, such as benefits of proximity to other firms or infrastructure

AKA the more you do, the cheaper it becomes

Question 179

what do bulk carriers do

Answer 179

bulk carriers of goods such as oil, mineral ores and grains have also increased in size and achieved similar scale economies

the largest oil tankers carry some 3 million barrels of oil, equivalent to some 440,000 tonnes

iron ore carriers can be nearly as big at 400,000 tonnes

Question 180

what is the world’s busiest port?

Answer 180

until 2005, Singapore was the world’s busiest port in terms of total tonnage handled.

it is now second after Shanghai, however singapore remains the world’s largest trans-shipment port in terms of goods in and out

Question 181

how have submarine cables developed over the years?

Answer 181

the first submarine cables were laid in the second half of the nineteenth century, notably the first trans Atlantic telegraph cable in 1866

by the early 20th century a global telegraphic network had been laid

telephone cables were laid during the 1950s

today , fibre optic cables criss-cross the oceans forming an essential part of the globalised telecommunications network, especially between London, NY and Tokyo

Question 182

what is a blue water navy?

Answer 182

the term describes a navy that is able to operate away from its home bases

Question 183

how is china’s naval power growing?

Answer 183

there are 4 primary domestic naval ports covering the north, central and southern stretches of coastline

it is significant that China has been establishing bases in other countries, which allow its navy to operate away from its home bases

that China is extending its naval military capacity is a strong indication of its emerging superpower status

this is part of its ‘Belt and Road’ initiative to improve regional connectivity, build dependencies and alliances and provide easier and defensible access to world markets

the Maritime Silk Road is part of that hugely ambitious project to challenge the hegemony of the USA

Question 184

what are some concerns about China’s growing naval power?

Answer 184

the spread of Chinese naval power into the Indian Ocean is of increasing concern for India. These concerns are made more serious for India because potential Chinese naval bases are in countries such as Pakistan, with which India does not currently have good relation

The level of infrastructure in each of these overseas bases. however, is not as yet developed enough to support substantial Chinese military power

Question 185

what is an example of marine conflict?

Answer 185

in the South China Sea

the Paracels and the Spratlys, as well as areas of adjacent sea are claimed either in whole or in part by various countries

China claims the most ocean as defined by the ‘nine-dashed-line’. This claim is based on historical factors which almost all its regional neighbours dispute, as does the broader international community

other countries also involved in claiming some of the South China Sea are Malaysia and Brunei. The attractions of the islands include reserves of oil and gas under the seabed wh9ile trade routes passing through the region are important to China’s economy

Question 186

what are some recent incidents in the South China Sea?

Answer 186

1974 and 1988 - armed clashes between China and Vietnam over the Paracels and Spratlys; some 130 military personnel killed

2012 - China and Philippines accuse each other of incursion in the Scarborough Shoal

2012 - China formally creates Sansha City in the Paracels to administer Chinese territory in the region; Vietnam and the Philippines protest

2013 - the Philippines challenge legality of China actions under the UN Convention on the Law of the Sea

2014 - China sets up a drilling rig near to the Paracels; multiple collisions occur between Chinese and Vietnamese vessels

2015 - US satellite and spy plane reconnaissance shows China building infrastructure on some of the Spratly Islands eg an airstrip

2016 - the court of arbitration find in favour of the Philippines rejecting China’s claims to the Spratly Islands

Question 187

how is the US interested in the South China Sea?

Answer 187

the region, which is worth US$1.2 trillion to the US economy, is an important trading location for the USA.

they also have several long standing allies such as South Korea and Taiwan whose security it promises to safeguard

Militarily, the US Seventh Fleet based in Japan is by far the strongest in the region. However, the chance of direct confrontation between the USA and China is low if past tensions are anything to go by, even though the USA has not signed up to the UNCLOS agreement. It only voluntarily agrees to its principles and so this weakness the argument for a legal and rules-based solution to disputes in the South China Sea.

Question 188

what is piracy?

Answer 188

the act of boarding any vessel with intent to commit theft of any other crime, and with an intent or capacity to use force in furtherance of that act

Question 189

what are two areas where significant and recent piracy activities have occured?

Answer 189

the western Indian Ocean and Southeast Asia

the former region includes the strategically important route through the Gulf Aden and Red Sea, which leads to the Suez Canal.

In Southeast Asia, the Malacca and Singapore Straits are maritime ‘choke points’ adding to the vulnerability of shipping

The Gulf of Guinea in West Africa is the other main location where piracy has been taking place

Question 190

why is there a clear seasonal pattern to piracy attacks in the western Indian Ocean?

Answer 190

the monsoon seasons, and in particular the summer one, register fewer incidents due to the stronger winds of the monsoons creating rough sea conditions

the smaller boats from which pirates tend to operate are difficult to control in stormy conditions when coming alongside a large vessel and boarding are extremely hazardous

Question 191

how has international action helped to reduce piracy attacks?

Answer 191

a substantial maritime coalition involving the EU, NATO, the USA and a host of countries such as Russia, India, China, Japan and South Korea patrolled the most vulnerable areas

as a result of intense military surveillance, attacks in the Indian Ocean have reduced significantly in the past few years

military deterrence has also been stepped up in the Gulf of Guinea as ‘petro-piracy’ has increased. Tankers, drilling platforms and supply vessels have become targets

Question 192

what are the reasons behind the rise in piracy?

Answer 192

relative poverty of countries like Somalia where pirates have their bases

weak government

piracy often has strong links to organised crime networks. The ‘profits’ from piracy are channelled (laundered) through various economic systems, such as land and house purchases

the fishermen of Somalia link the growth of piracy to the loss of their traditional fisheries due to industrial scale fishing in the area by boats from outside the region

efforts are being made to help governments function more effectively and to offer training programmes to younger men to divert them from criminal activities

Question 193

what are some reasons for migration?

Answer 193

economic migrancy is clearly dominant, although failed governance, terrorism and climate change are all exacerbating factors

Question 194

what is a refugee?

Answer 194

a person who owing to a well-founded fear of being persecuted for reasons of race, religion, nationality, membership of a particular social group, or political opinion, is outside the country of his or her nationality

in addition, this term is given to those who flee a location due to environmental disasters such as droughts and floods

Question 195

why do migrants cross the Mediterranean?

Answer 195

the relatively wealthy countries of western Europe have long since attracted migrants, especially if strong historic link exist between countries such as Algeria and France, and Morocco and Spain

refugees head towards the Mediterranean from a number of different countries in sub-Saharan Africa and the Middle East, many as a result of a surge in armed conflict, for example, Syrians fleeing civil war or Eritreans escaping from a country with one of the worst human rights records in the world

Question 196

what is people smuggling?

Answer 196

continuing political instability and a lack of progress in raising standards of living mean that in several countries, traffickers find plenty of desperate people willing to pay substantial sums of money to be smuggled

Question 197

what is the international response to refugees?

Answer 197

global governance is playing an increasing role in dealing with both the causes and the consequences of the flows of refugees using the oceans as escape routes

the UNHCR and the EU try to manage the flows of forced migrants

Maritime patrols in the Mediterranean rescue refugees adrift in un-seaworthy boats and resettlement programmes try to avoid refugee camps becoming permanent homes for displaced people

Question 198

what are examples of deep seabed mineral resources?

Answer 198

manganese nodules
cobalt-rich crust
hydrothermal deposits

Question 199

what is the High Seas Treaty

(and analysis)

Answer 199

the High Seas Treaty proposes to put the world’s international waters into marine protected areas (MPAs), meaning that activities such as fishing, shipping and exploring may be limited in attempt to protect the ocean.

The treaty has yet to be formally adopted, and will only enter force once 60 countries have signed up and passed the legalisation in their own countries.

This process will be extremely time-consuming, and so the longer it takes for international co-operation to be achieved, the more severe the damage caused by overfishing and pollution will become.

Question 200

what resources are within the South China Sea

Answer 200

it is home to 10% of the world’s fisheries, 11 billion barrels of oil and 190 trillion feet3 of natural gas

Question 201

what are the factors influencing inter-tidal ecosystems

Answer 201

salt marshes are one of the most porductuive ecosystems on the Earth, rivalling arable land in terms of productivity

dissolved and solid nutrients are transported by rivers down to the coast while regular todal movements of water mix the water and nutrients. in this way, there is always plenty of food for the ecosystem

the rhythm of the tides has a strong influence on the marsh. A clear arrangements of zones usually evolves, extending from the low tide area which is covered by salt water most of the time to the part of the marsh where only occassionally the very highest tides reach.

this zonation can be seen in the vegetation change and is called plant succession. As vegetation changes, so do other organisms, such as insects, birds and animals.