GI Pathology Flashcards
What is oesophageal reflux?
Reflux of gastric acid into oesophagus
What happens when there is secrete oesophageal reflex?
Ulceration of oesophageal epithelium
What is the affect of oesophageal reflex on the epithelium?
Thickening
Name the complications of oesophageal reflex
Healing by fibrosis
Barretts oesophagus
What are the affects of healing by fibrosis for oesophageal reflux?
Stricture formation
Impaired oesophageal motility
oesophageal obstruction
What is Barrett’s oesophagus?
Transformation from squamous epithelium to glandular epithelium

Name the histological types of oesophageal cancer?
Squamous carcinoma
Adenocarcinoma

What are the risk factors for squamous oesophageal carcinoma?
Smoking
Alcohol
Diet
What are the risk factors for adenocarcinoma oesophageal cancer?
Barrett’s oesophagus
Obesity
Name the local affects of oesophageal cancer?
Obstruction
Ulceration
Perforation
How does oesophagus cancer spread?
Direct
Lymphatic spread
Blood spread
Where does oesophageal cancer spread to though the blood?
Liver
What is the prognosis of oesophageal cancer?
Very poor
5 year survival rate >15%
What is type A gastritis?
autoimmune
What is type B gastritis?
Bacterial
What is type C gastritis?
Chemical injury
What is autoimmune gastritis caused by?
Autoantibodies to parietal cells and intrinsic factor
What is gastritis?
inflammation of the gastric mucosa
What are the affects of loss of specialised cells in autoimmune gastritis?
Decreased acid secretion
Loss of intrinsic factor
How does autoimmune gastritis affects the epithelium?
Atrophy of specialised acid secreting gastric epithelium
What is the most common type of gastritis?
type B
What bacteria causes bacterial gastritis?
Helicobacter pylori
Where is Helicobacter pylori found?
In gastric mucus on surface of gastric epithelium
What type of bacterium is helicobacter pylori?
Gram negative
What does Helicobacter pylori do?
Increased acid production
What are the causes of chemical gastritis?
Drugs
Alcohol
Bile reflex
What drugs most commonly cause chemical gastritis?
NSAIDS
What is peptic ulceration?
Imbalance between acid secretion and mucosal barrier
What parts of the oesophagus does peptic ulceration affect?
Lower oesophagus
What parts of the stomach does peptic ulceration affect?
Body
Antrum
What parts of the duodenum does peptic ulceration affect?
First and second parts
What parts of the GI tract does peptic ulceration affect?
Oesophagus
Stomach
Duodenum
What bacteria is peptic ulceration associated with?
H. Pylori
Name the complications of peptic ulceration?
Bleeding
Perforation
Healing by fibrosis
What is stomach cancer associated with?
Previous H. Pylori infection
How does stomach cancer develop?
Develops though phases of intestinal meta plasma and dysplasia

What is the histology of stomach cancer?
Adenocarcinoma
Name the ways stomach cancer spreads?
Direct
Lymphatic
Blood
Transoelomic
Where does transcoelomic spread of stomach cancer occur?
Within peritoneal cavity
What is the prognosis of stomach cancer?
Very poor
5 year survival >20%
What is liver failure a complication of?
Acute liver injury
Chronic liver injury
What can cause acute liver injury?
Hepatitis
Bile duct obstruction
What can cause hepatitis?
Viruses
Alcohol
Drugs
How does viral hepatitis affect the liver?
Inflammation of liver
Liver cell damage and death of individual liver cells
What type of hepatitis progresses to chronic hepatitis and cirrhosis?
Hepatitis B, C
What type of hepatitis can cause liver failure due to severe damage?
Hepatitis A,B,E
In what type of hepatitis does the liver return to normal?
Hepatitis A,E
What is alcoholic liver disease?
Response of liver to excess alcohol
What can alcoholic liver disease progress to?
Cirrhosis
What are the affects of alcoholic hepatitis?
Acute inflammation
Liver cell death
Liver failure
What is jaundice caused by?
Altered metabolism of bilirubin
What is jaundice?
Increased circulating bilirubin
Name the pathways of bilirubin metabolism
Pre-hepatic
Hepatic
Post-hepatic
Describe pre-hepatic bilirubin metabolism
Breakdown of haemoglobin in spleen to form haem and glob in
Haem converted to bilirubin which is released
Describe hepatic bilirubin metabolism
Uptake of bilirubin by hepatocytes
Conjugation of bilirubin in hepatocytes
Excretion of conjugated bilirubin into the biliary system
Describe post- hepatic bilirubin metabolism?
Transport of conjugated bilirubin in biliary system
Breakdown of bilirubin conjugate in intestine
Re-absorption
What is the cause of pre-hepatic jaundice?
Increased release of haemoglobin from red cells
What are the causes of hepatic jaundice?
Cholestasis
Intra-hepatic bile duct obstruction
What is cholestasis?
Accumulation of bile within hepatocytes or bile canaliculi
What are the causes of cholestasis?
Viral hepatitis
Alcoholic hepatitis
Liver failure
Drugs
What is predicable drug induced cholestasis
Dose related
Give examples of intra-hepatic bile duct obstruction
Primary bile cholangitis
Primary sclerosing cholagnits
Tumours of the liver
Name the tumours of the liver
Hepatocellular carcinoma
Tumours of intra-hepatic bile duct
Metastatic tumours
What sex does primary biliary cholangitis affect?
Females
What is primary biliary cholangitis?
Organ specific auto-immune disease
What are the effects of primary biliary cholangitis?
Anti-mitochondrial auto-antibodies in serum
Raised serum alkaline phosphatase
What happens to the bile ducts in primary biliary cholangitis?
Gramulamous inflammtion
Loss of intra-hepatic bile ducts
What is primary sclerosing cholangitis?
Chronic inflammation and fibrous obliteration of bile ducts
What is primary sclerosing cholangitis associated with?
inflammatory bowel disease
What does primary sclerosing cholangitis give an increased risk of?
Development of cholangiocarcinoma
What is hepatic cirrhosis?
End stage chronic liver disease
What are the causes of cirrhosis?
Alcohol
Hepatitis
Immune mediated liver disease
Metabolic disorders
Obesity
What metabolic disorders cause cirrhosis
Primary haemochromatosis
Wilson’s disease
What is Wilson’s disease?
Excess copper
What is primary haemochromatosis?
Excess iron
What immune mediated liver diseases cause cirrhosis?
Auto-immune hepatitis
Primary biliary cholangitis
What are the affects of cirrhosis on liver structure?
Loss of normal structure
Replaced by nodules of hepatocytes and fibrous tissues
Name the complications of cirrhosis?
Liver failure
Portal hypertension
What does cirrhosis increase the risk for?
Hepatocellular carcinoma
What is hepatocellular carcinoma?
Malignant tumor of hepatocytes.
What is cholangiocarcinoma?
Malignant tumour of bile duct epithelium
What are the risk factors for gallstones?
Obesity
Diabetes
What is acute cholecystitis?
Acute inflammation of the gallbladder
How does acute cholecystitis affect the gallbladder?
Perforation of gall bladder
Biliary peritonitis
What is chronic cholecystitis?
Chronic inflammation and fibrosis of the gallbladder
What are the common causes of common bile duct obstruction
Gallstones
Bile duct tumours
Benign stricture
External compression
What are the affects of common bile duct obstruction?
Jaundice
No bile excreted into duodenum
Ascending cholangitis
What is ascending cholangitis?
Infection of bile prosimians to obstruction
What can happen if there is prolonged common bile duct obstruction?
Secondary biliary cirrhosis
How often are the cells in the small bowel renewed?
every 4-6 days
What type of crypts are found in the small bowel?
Stem
Goblet
Endocrine
Paneth
What cell types are found in the small bowel?
Goblet dells
Columnar absorptive cells
Endocrine cells
What type of crypts are found in the large bowel?
Tubular
What must the immune system balance in the GI tract?
Tolerance of harmless ingested substances against active defence reactions to potential microbial invaders
What is the bowel peristalsis mediated by?
Intrinsic myenteric plexus and extrinsic autonomic innervation neural control
What is the myenteric plexus made up of?
Meissener’s plexus
Auerbach plexus
Where is Meisseners plexus located?
Base of the submucosa
Where is Auerbach’s plexus located?
between the inner circular and outer longitudinal muscle layers of the muscularis propria
Define idiopathic inflammatory bowel disease
Chronic inflammatory conditions resulting from inappropriate and persistent activation of the mucosal immune system driven by the presence of normal intraluminal flora
Name the main idiopathic inflammatory bowel diseases
Crohn’s disease
Ulcerative colitis
What gene mutation is associated with Crohn’s disease?
NOD2
what gene is associated with ulcerative colitis?
HLA
What is the cause of IBD?
Strong immune response against normal flora with defects in epithelial barrier
What is used to diagnose IBD
pANCA
which type of IBD is associated with p-ANCA
UC
What age does UC peak?
20-30 years
70-80 years
Where is UC found?
Localised to rectum
Where does UC commonly spread
Proximally
What is found in UC?
Psudopolyps
Ulceration
Inflammation
What is UC associated with?
Systemic manifestations
Are granumolas present in UC?
No
Where is the wall is UC limited to?
Mucosa and submucosa
How does UC affect the mucosa?
Mucosal atrophy
How does UC affect crypts?
Cyptisis
Crypt abscesses
Architectural disarray of crypts
Name complications of UC
Haemorrhage
Perforation
Toxic dilation
Describe dysplasia of UC progressing to cancer
Flat epithelial atypica
Adenomatous change
Invasive cancer
What is there an increased risk of if pancolitis is present in UC?
20-30 x higher risk of developing cancer
Where is Crohn’s disease located?
Anywhere from mouth to anus
What sex does Crohn’s disease affect more?
Females
What age does Crohn’s disease peak?
20-30 years
60-70 years
What race is Crohn’s disease most common?
Caucasians - Jewish population
Where is most Crohn’s disease located?
Small intestine
How does CD affect the mesentary?
Thickened
Oedematous
Fibrotic
Wrapping mesenteric fat
How does CD affect the lumen?
Narrowing of lumen due to thickened wall
Describe ulceration in CD
Deep
Cobblestone apperance
What granulomas are found in CD
Non-caseating granulomas
How does CD affect crypt?
Cryptitis
Crypt destruction to due atrophy
Distortion
Define lymphagiectasia
Dilation of lymph vessels
Seen in CD
What type of inflammation is seen in CD?
Transmural
What are the long term features of CD
Malabsorption
Strictures
Fistulas
Perforation
How much increased risk of cancer is there due to CD?
5x increased risk
What leads to infarction in colon?
Acute occlusion of 1 of 3 major supply vessels
Where are ischaemic lesions found?
Either restricted to SI or LI
Or can affect both depending on vessel affected
What causes ischaemic enteritis?
Transmural injury
Acute/ chronic hypoperfusion
Name predisposing conditions for ischaemia
Arterial thrombosis/ embolism
Non- occlusive ischaemia
What flexure is vulnerable in acute ischaemia?
Splenic flexure
What occurs if acute ischaemia last for several days?
Bacteria gangrene and perforation
What does the lumen contain in acute ischaemia?
Sanguinous mucin
Is inflammation present in acute ischaemia?
Initial absence of inflammation
What is radiation colitis?
Abdominal irradiation can impaired the normal proliferative activity of the bowel epithelium
What radiotherapy usually caused radiation colitis?
Rectum- pelvic radiotherapy
What does radiation colitis target?
Actively dividing cells especially blood vessels and crypt epithelium
What are the symptoms of radiation colitis?
Anorexia
Abdominal cramps
Diarrhoea
Malabsorption
What cells are inflamed due to radiation colitis?
Crypt abscesses and eosinophils
What type of stenosis does radiation colitis cause?
Arterial stenosis
What are the affects of severe radiation colitis?
Ulceration
Necrosis
Haemorrhage
Perforation
What happens to the lymphoid tissue in the appendix?
Regresses with age
What is the cause of appendicitis?
Obstruction
What causes obstruction in the appendix?
Foe coli the
Enterobius vermicularis
What causes ischaemia in appendicitis?
Increased intraluminal pressure
What occurs in acute gangrenous appendicitis?
Full thickness necrosis and perforation
What is dysplasia?
abnormal changes in the size, shape, and organization of mature cells
Name the types of adenoma dysplasia?
Tubular
Villus
Tubulovillous
What are the affects of low grade dysplasia?
Increased nuclear no and size
Reduced mucin
What is the difference between high grade dysplasia and carcinoma?
Dysplasia is not yet invasive
What do the cells look like in high-grade dysplasia?
Crowded
Very irregular
What genes are a risk factor for colorectal adenocarcinoma?
FAP
HNPCC
Peutz-jeghers
What are the risk factors for colorectal adenocarcinoma?
Lifestyle
Family history
IBD
Genetics
Describe the characterises of left sided colorectal adenocarcinoma?
Annular
Describe the characterises of right sided colorectal adenocarcinoma?
Exophytic/ polypoid
How does left-sided colorectal adenocarcinoma affect the blood?
Bleeding flesh/ altered blood rectally
How does right-sided colorectal adenocarcinoma affect the blood?
Anaemia
What are the effects of left-sided colorectal adenocarcinoma?
Altered bowel habit
Obstruction
What are the effects of right-sided colorectal adenocarcinoma?
Vague pain
Weakness
Obstruction
What does the prognosis of colorectal adenocarcinoma depend on?
Tumour grade
Tumour stage
Extramural venous invasion
What is extramural venous invasion?
Direct invasion of a blood vessel by a tumour
What is the treatment for colorectal cancer?
Resection
What is oesophageal peristalsis produced by?
Oesophageal circular muscles
What mediates contraction and relation of LOS?
Vagus nerve
What muscle is the lower oesophageal sphincter?
Striated muscle of right crus of diaphragm
Where is there high pressure is the LOS?
In distal smooth muscle
What is a heart burn?
Restrosternal discomfort or burning
What are the symptoms of oesophageal disease
Heartburn
Dysphagia
What is heartburn associated with?
Waterbrash
Cough
What is waterbrash?
Acidic taste at back of throat
What is heartburn the consequence of?
Reflux of acid/ bilious gastric contents into the oesophagus
What can reduce LOS pressure resulting in heartburn?
Drugs
Food
What can persistent heartburn lead to?
Gastro-oesophageal reflux disease
What is dysphagia?
subjective sensation of difficulty or abnormality of swallowing
What is odynophagia?
painful swallowing
Where are the locations of dysphagia?
Oropharyngeal
Oesophageal
What are the causes of oesophageal dysphagia?
Benign stricture
Malignant stricture
Motility disorder
Eosinophilia oesophagitis
What are the common investigations done for oesophageal disease?
Oesophago-gastro-duodenoscropy (OGD)
Upper GI endoscopy
What are the less common investigations done for oesophageal disease?
Barium swallow
Ph- metry
Manometry
What does pH-metry measure?
Acid levels in stomach
What does manometry measure?
Pressure waves
Name motility disorders?
Achalasia
Hypermotility
Hypomotilty
What is hypermotility also known as?
Diffuse oesophageal spasm
What are the symptoms of hypermotility?
Severe, episodic chest pain
Dysphagia
What does manometry show in hypermotility?
Exaggerated, uncoordinated, hypertonic contractions
What is the treatment for hypermotility?
Smooth muscle relaxants
What is hypomobility associated with?
Connective tissue disease
Diabetes
Neuropathy
What causes the symptoms of hypomotility?
Failure of LOS mechanism
What are the symptoms of hypomotility?
Heartburn
Reflux
What is achalasia?
Functional loss of myenteric plexus ganglion cells in distal oesophagus and LOS
What is the cardinal feature of achalasia?
Failure of LOS to relax
In what age is achalasia the most common?
30-50 years
What can achalasia lead to?
Functional distal obstruction of oesophagus
What are the symptoms of achalasia?
Progressive dysphagia
Regurgitation
Chest pain
Weight loss
What are the pharmacological treatments of achalasia?
Nitrates
Calcium channel blockers
What are the endoscopic treatments of achalasia?
Botulinum toxin pneumatic balloon dilation
What are the surgical treatments of achalasia?
Myotomy
What are the radiological treatments of achalasia?
Pneumatic balloon dilation
What are the complications of achalasia?
Aspiration pneumonia and lung disease
Increased risk of squamous cell oesophageal carcinoma
What is GORD due to?
Pathological acid exposure in lower oesophagus
What are the symptoms of GORD?
Heartburn
Cough
Waterbrash
Sleep disturbances
What are the risk factors for GORD?
Pregnancy
Obesity
Drugs lowering LOS pressure
Smoking
Alcoholism
Hypomotility
What sex is more affecte by GORD?
Men
What race is more affected by GORD?
Caucasian
How can GORD be diagnosed?
Basis of the characteristic symptoms, without diagnostic testing
When would endoscopy be performed for GORD?
In presence of alarm features suggestive of malignancy
What is the cause of GORD due to hiatus hernia?
Anatomical distortion of the OG junction
What is the cause of GORD without abnormal anatomy?
Relaxed/ hypotension LOS
Delayed oesophageal/gastric emptying
Delayed oesophageal acid clearing
What are the two main types of hiatus hernia?
Sliding
Para-oesophageal
What happens in a hiatus hernia?
Fundus of stomach moves proximally through the diaphragmatic hiatus
What are risk factors for hiatus hernia?
Obesity
Age
What can happen to the oesophagus in severe cases of GORD?
Erosive oesophagitis
What happens to the cells in GORD?
Mucosa exposed to acid-pepsin and bile
Increased cell loss and regenerative activity
What are the complications of GORD?
Ulceration
Stricture
Glandular metaplasia
Carcinoma
What is Barretts oesophagus a precursor to?
Dysplasia
Adenocarcinoma
What is Barrett’s oesophagus?
Intestinal metaplasia related to prolonged acid exposure in distal oesophagus
What sex is most affected by Barrett’s oesophagus
Men
What is the risk of developing oesophageal cancer due to Barretts oesophagus
6%/ year
What are the main treatment for Barretts oesophagus ?
Endoscopic mucosal resection
Radio-frequency ablation
What is Oesophagectomy rarely done for treatment of Barretts oesophagus?
Due to mortality of 10%
What are the pharmacological treatments for empirical GORD?
Alginates
H2RA
Proton pump inhibitor
What is the treatment of refractory GORD
Anti-reflux surgery
What is the median age of diagnosis for oesophageal cancer?
65
What type of oesophageal cancer is most common?
Adenocarcinoma is Western Europe/USA
Squamous everywhere else
What are the main symptoms of oesophageal cancer?
Progressive dysphagia
Anorexia and weight loss
What part of the oesophagus does squamous cell carcinoma occur?
Proximal and middle third of oesophagus
What is oesophageal squamous cell carcinoma associated with?
Achalasia
Caustic stricture
Plummer-Vinson syndrome
What is oesophageal squamous cell carcinoma preceded by?
Dysplasia
Carcinoma in situ
Describe the characteristics of oesophageal squamous cell carcinoma
Large exophyic occluding tumours
what are significant risk factors for oesophageal squamous cell carcinoma?
Tobacco
Alcohol
What part of the oesophagus does adenocarcinoma occur?
Distal oesophagus
What are the predisposing factors for oesophageal adenocarcinoma?
Obesity
Male
Middle age
Caucasian
What limits surgery for oesophagus cancer?
Local invasion due to no peritoneal lining in mediastinum
Where does oesophageal cancer commonly metastasis?
Hepatic
Brain
Pulmonary
Bone
What is oesophageal cancer diagnosed by?
Endoscopy
Biopsy
What is used in the staging of oesophageal cancer?
CT scan
Endoscopic ultrasound
PET scan
Bone scan
What is the treatment for oesophageal cancer?
Surgical oesophagectomy +/- adjuvant or neoadjuvant chemotherapy
Who is oesophagectomy limited to?
Patients with localised disease, without co-morbid disease usually <70 years of age
What is the mortality rate for oesophagectomy?
10%
What is the priority in oesophageal cancer treatment?
palliative treatment to Alleviate Symptoms
What are the treatment options of swallowing difficulties in oesophageal cancer?
Endoscopic
Chemotherapy
Radiotherapy
Brachytherapy
How is eosinophilic oesophagitis defined clinically?
Symptoms of oesophageal dysfunction
How is eosinophilia oesophagitis defined pathologically?
Eosinophilic infiltration of the oesophageal epithelium in the abscesses of secondary causes of local or systemic eosinophilia
What age is eosinophilia oesophagitis more commonly seen in?
Children and young adults
What are the symptoms of eosinophilic oesophagitis?
Dysphagia
Food bolus obstruction
What is the treatment for eosinophilic oesophagitis
Corticosteroids
Dietary elimination
What is the treatment for severe eosinophilic oesophagitis
Endoscopic dilatation
Define satiety
feeling of fullness
What is dyspepsia?
Pain or discomfort in the upper abdomen for 4 weeks
What causes the symptom of dyspeptisa?
Gallstones
Coeliac disease
Drugs
Psychological
GI
What are the symptoms of dyspepsia?
Upper abdominal discomfort
Retro sternal pain
Anorexia
Nausea
What drugs can cause dyspepsia?
NSAIDS
Steroids
Bisphophonates
Ca antagonists
Theophylline
When would you refer to endoscopy for dyspepsia?
Anorexia
Loss of weight
Anaemia
Recent onset >55 years
Melaena
Swallowing problems
What are the risk factors of upper GI endoscopy
Bleeding
Perforation
Reaction to drugs given
What is the shape of helicobacter pylori?
Spiral
When is H.pylori acquired?
Childhood
Where does H.pylori colonize?
Gastric type mucosa
where does h.pylori reside?
In the surface mucous layer
What does H.pylori evoke?
Response in underlying mucosa
How does H. pylori survive in the stomach?
Produces ammonia from urea to neutralize the acid
What happens when H.pylori progresses to antral predominant gastritis?
Increased acid
Du disease
What happens when H.pylori progresses to corpus predominant gastritis?
Decreased acid
Gastric atrophy
Gastric cancer
What are the non invasive tests for diagnosis of H. Pylori?
Serology - IgG
Urea breath test
Stool antigen test - ELISA
What are the invasive tests for the diagnosis of H.pylori?
Culture of gastric biopsies
Rapid slide urease test
Histology
What is utilised in breath tests for H.pylori infection diagnosis?
13C or 14C labelled CO2
What are the majority of peptic ulcers caused by?
H. Pylori infection
What sex is most affected by peptic ulcers?
Men
When are peptic ulcers more common?
In elderly
what are the risk factors for peptic ulcers?
NSAIDS
Smoking
What conditions can cause peptic ulcers?
Zollinger-Ellison syndrome
Hyper parathyroid so
Crohn’s disease
What are the symptoms of peptic ulcer?
Epigastic pain
Hunger pain
Back pain
Nausea
What are the symptoms of a chronic peptic ulcer?
Weight loss and anorexia
What symptoms are more common in DU peptic ulcers?
Back pain
Nocturnal/ hunger pain
what are the symptoms of a peptic ulcer bleeding?
Haematemesis
Melaena
Anaemia
What is the treatment for complicated peptic ulcer?
Surgery
What is the treatment of peptic ulcers?
Antacid medication
Proton pump inhibitors
What is the treatment of a peptic ulcer caused by H.pylori?
Eradication therapy to get rid of the bacteria
How is a H.pylori infection eradication
Triple therapy for 7 days
Clarithromycin
Amoxicillin
PPI
What is given for treatment of H.pylori infection if patient has penicillin allergy?
Tetracycline instead of amoxicillin
What is the main reason for failure in eradicating H.pylori infection?
Resistance to antibiotics and poor compliance
What are the complications of a peptic ulcer?
Bleeding
Perforation
Fibrosis stricture
Gastric outlet obstruction
What are the complications of a peptic ulcer which is bleeding acutely?
Melaena
Haematemesis
What are the complications of a peptic ulcer which is bleeding chronically?
Iron deficiency anaemia
What is seen on bloods for gastric outlet obstruction?
Low Cl
Low Na
Low K
How is gastric outlet obstruction diagnosed?
endoscopy of upper gastrointestinal tract
What are the symptoms of gastric outlet obstruction?
Vomiting
Early satiety
Abdominal distension
Weight loss
Gastric splash
What does the vomit look like in gastric outlet obstruction?
Lacks bile
Fermented foodstuffs
How is gastric outlet obstruction treated?
Endoscopic balloon dilatation
Surgery
What are the majority of gastric cancers?
adenocarcinomas
What are the symptoms of gastric cancer?
Dyspepsia
Early satiety
Nausea
Weight loss
GI bleeding
What are the risk factors of gastric cancer?
H. Pylori
Smoking
Diet
Genetics
What genes are associated with gastric cancer?
HDGC
AD
CDH-1 gene
What are the majority of gastric cancers caused by?
Sporadic with no demonstratble inherited component
What is needed to made a histological diagnosis of gastric cancer?
Endoscopy
Biopsies
What is the treatment for gastric cancer?
Chemotherapy
Surgical
What are the staging investigations done for gastric cancer?
CT chest/abdo
Endoscopic mucosal resection or mucosal ablation, esophagectomy, and chemoradiation are treatment options for cancer.
options for esophageal cancer.
____ is the most common type of esophageal carcinoma in the United uk.
Adenocarcinoma
The ____ segment of the esophagus is typically affected by esophageal adenocarcinoma.
The lower third segment
The most common presenting sign of esophageal cancer is ____, initially for solids and then for liquid
esophageal cancer is dysphagia,
Risk factors for squamous cell oesophagal carcinoma include ____
alcohol, hot liquids, caustic strictures, smoking, and achalasia
The _____ segments of the esophagus are typically affected by esophageal squamous cell carcinoma.
The upper two third segments
____ is a neoplasm associated with Barrett esophagus.
Esophageal adenocarcinoma
____ is the imaging study that allows direct visualization and biopsy of esophageal cancer
Esophagogastroduodenoscopy
____ is the most common type of esophageal carcinoma worldwide.
Squamous cell carcinoma